Sunday, January 26, 2020
Strain Gauge Laboratory Exercise
Strain Gauge Laboratory Exercise An investigation into the effects of electronic circuits on the accuracy of weight measurement and how these results relate to material properties Instrumentation systems are necessary in industry to provide accurate and reliable measurements of various quantities, as well as monitoring and controlling processes. In this experiment, strain gauge sensors were attached to a cantilever beam upon which a varying load was applied and the output voltage recorded in order to estimate the mass of an unknown object. This was done for four separate electrical circuits, involving potential dividers and Wheatstone bridges, to compare their respective accuracies in measuring the unknown mass. The obtained results were also used to calculate an estimate for the Youngs Modulus of the steel beam, which was found to be 46.6 GPa. This differed greatly from the expected value of 200 GPa due to the irregular thickness of the beam, which affected the calculated results for the stress and highlighted the need to reduce sources of error before and during experiments. An instrumentation system is a collection of instruments used to measure, monitor and control a process. (1) These systems are regularly used for a variety of measurements in industries including communications, defence and engineering systems. The instrumentation systems involved in these measurement processes usually comprise of a sensor and appropriate electronic circuitry to manipulate and process the signal. Utilisation of these systems in industry is rapidly increasing as they continue to increase productivity and quality through the reduction of human error in the measurements made. The strain gauge is one of the most important sensors regarding the measurement of mechanical quantities. A strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force. (2) The variation in length produced by the force causes a change in electrical resistivity across the gauge which can be measured and used to calculate values of stress and strain. This report investigates the effects of different electronic circuits on the accuracy of weight measurement using strain gauge sensors on a cantilever beam and a comparison between experimental and theoretical results for Youngs Modulus. The different circuits considered are: a potential divider circuit a Wheatstone bridge circuit in quarter bridge configuration a Wheatstone bridge circuit in half bridge configuration a Wheatstone bridge and amplifier circuit A cantilever beam is a beam anchored only at one end, as shown in figure 1 below. As stated in the introduction, the application of a force on the beam alters its length which subsequently changes the strain gauge resistance. This change in resistance is given by:                                                      (equation 1) where R is the resistance of the gauge, à ¢Ã‹â€ †R is the change in resistance, is the gauge factor (which is 2 throughout this experiment) and ÃŽ µ is the strain. In the potential divider set up illustrated below in figure 2, the 1.5kÃŽ © resistor is in series with the strain gauge and, as the resistance across the strain gauge varies with the load applied, the voltage across the strain gauge will also change. This voltage can be measured and used to calculate the strain on the beam. Deformation to the strain gauge through the applied force generates a very small change in resistance, causing only a very small change in voltage for the masses added. For this reason, it is more accurate to measure the change in voltage instead of the overall output voltage. This can be achieved through the use of a circuit known as a Wheatstone bridge. A Wheatstone bridge contains two simple series-parallel arrangements of resistances connected between a voltage supply terminal and ground producing zero voltage difference between the two parallel branches when balanced. (3) The arrangement of this is shown in figure 3 below: For this investigation, the bridge is arranged in two different configurations, quarter bridge and half bridge, changing the number of arms made active. The bridge is originally balanced so the resistances in the lower and upper arms of each adjacent sides are equal, giving a 0V output. Therefore, a change in resistance of one of the active arms as the beam deforms gives rise to a voltage output à ¢Ã‹â€ †V which can be measured through equation 2:                                                          (equation 2) where V is the bridge excitation voltage, R is the gauge resistance, à ¢Ã‹â€ †R is the change in resistance and K = for a quarter bridge set up and for a half bridge set up. Equation 1 and equation 2 can then be combined to produce an equation for calculating the induced stress in the material:                                                                (equation 3) When a load W is applied to the beam, the stress at the strain gauge at distance L is given by the equation:                                                                 (equation 4) where ÃÆ' is the surface stress, W is the applied force, L is the distance between the load and the strain gauge sensors, b is the width of the beam and t is the thickness of the beam (see figure 4). Youngs modulus can then be calculated through Hookes Law:                                                                  (equation 5) 4.1 Apparatus The experiment was conducted using the apparatus illustrated in figure 5, as well as utilising measuring equipment described below: Cantilever beam set up as shown in figure 5, with a pair of 120kÃŽ © strain gauges attached at a distance from the free end, one above the beam and one below. Cantilever beam casing containing 2 switches to alternate between the potential divider and Wheatstone bridge circuits and then, for the latter, between quarter bridge and half bridge configuration. Masses, 100g each, to vary the load applied to the free end. Circuit board with potential divider, Wheatstone bridge and amplifier circuits set up containing potentiometers and pins to allow voltage to be measured across components. Digital Multimeter to record the output voltages of the circuit, measuring with an uncertainty of  ±0.5mV for the potential divider and  ±0.05mV for the Wheatstone bridges. Vernier caliper to measure the width and thickness of the beam, as well as the distance from the strain gauges to the load, measuring with an uncertainty of  ±0.005cm. Digital scales to calculate the actual mass of the unknown object, measuring with an accuracy of  ±0.05g. 4.2 Procedure The first electric circuit to be tested was the potential divider and therefore the switch on the cantilever beam casing was set to the corresponding place. With no load applied, the voltage across the strain gauge,, was measured. The minimum weight, 100g, was then loaded onto the beam and both the total weight and voltage across the strain gauge, , were recorded. The weight was then increased in 100g increments up to a maximum of 500g with the total weight and recorded after each mass was added. Finally, the load was removed and replaced with an unknown weight for which the voltage reading was recorded. The first switch was then changed to select the Wheatstone bridge circuit, and the second switch to choose the quarter bridge configuration. With no load applied to the beam, the excitation voltage, V, for the bridge was then measured and recorded. This circuit contained a potentiometer which was then altered to change the resistance and ensure the initial output read 0V on the multimeter. The same procedure as for the potential divider was then carried out and the results recorded for the same differentials. The second switch was then changed to select the half bridge configuration and an identical procedure to the quarter bridge was carried out. The second switch was then changed back to the quarter bridge configuration while the circuit was changed to include a differential amplifier to increase the output voltage. The circuit is shown in figure 5 below: The same method was then followed as used for the previous Wheatstone bridge without the amplifier; however, this time, the amplified voltage was measured and recorded as opposed to the actual output voltage . Finally, after all the necessary measurements using the equipment were recorded, the unknown weight and dimensions for the beam needed to be measured in order for the results outlined in the theory section to be calculated. The digital scale was used to give a value for the unknown weight while the vernier calipers were used to measure the width, b, and thickness, t, of the beam, as well as the distance between the load and the strain gauge, L. The mass, W, added and the voltmeter measurement, V, were recorded for each circuit and collected in four tables which can be found in Appendix A. The mass values were converted from g to N and graphs of the strain gauge voltage against applied load were drawn for the four circuits. The measured voltage for the unknown mass is also included alongside the appropriate tables. 5.1 Potential Divider The unknown mass gave a reading of 1.130V. 5.2 Wheatstone Bridge The unknown mass gave a reading of 0.4mV for the quarter bridge and 0.8mV for the half bridge. 5.3 Wheatstone Bridge with Differential Amplifier The amplifier circuit increased the values recorded in figure 7 by a factor of 50. The unknown mass gave a reading of 24.2mV. 5.4 Stress against strain for the beam Using the measured values from above and inputting them into equation 4 and equation 5 respectively, a graph of stress against strain can then be plotted. Referring to equation 3, the gradient of this graph then corresponds to Youngs Modulus, which is calculated to be 46.6 GPa. 5.5 Calibration Values Weight resolution is defined as the smallest increment of weight which the numeric display, in this case the voltmeter, can indicate. (4) Each circuit used during this investigation had a different weight resolution, which was calculated by measuring the initial voltage change from no load to 100g load and comparing this to the resolution of the measuring equipment: for the potential divider, this was  ±1mV, and for the other circuits this was  ±0.1mV. For example, when the voltage in the potential divider circuit increased by 1mV, the weight increased by either 100g or 200g the potential divider does not have an absolute weight resolution as multiple load values produced the same voltage reading and therefore the weight resolution is given through a range rather than a definite value. The weight resolutions increased as expected, with the potential divider providing the least accurate measurements and the quarter bridge with differential amplifier providing the most accurate measurements. These weight measurements can be used to estimate the weight of unknown mass by multiplying the recorded voltage for the unknown mass by the weight resolution calculated. This is shown in Table 1 below: Electrical Circuit Weight Resolution Estimate for unknown mass value Potential Divider 100g-200g 113g-226g Quarter Bridge 50.0g 200g Half Bridge 25.7g 205.6g Quarter Bridge with amplifier 0.994g 241.9 g The unknown mass was measured to be 236.4g using the digital scales. As can be seen from figure 1 and figure 2 from the theory section, both the potential divider and Wheatstone bridge circuits are fitted with additional resistors, 1.5kÃŽ © and 680ÃŽ © respectively. Known as current limiting resistors, these are necessary to stop the current rising above a certain value in these circuits it is necessary to limit the current to less than 10mA, calculated by dividing the source voltage of 15V by the circuit resistance of 1.5kÃŽ © (resistor) + 240ÃŽ © (strain gauges) in the potential divider circuit, giving a current of 8.6mA. This reduces any measurement errors which could arise from an increase of the strain gauges temperature through the Joule effect, where the energy of an electric current is converted into heat as it passes through a resistive material. (5) As the circuits change from potential divider through to quarter bridge with differential amplifier, the accuracy of the measured voltages increases. This can be demonstrated through the graphs in figures 7, 8 and 9 where it can be seen that the plotted values lie progressively closer to the line of best fit with the graph for the amplifier circuit, shown in figure 9, demonstrating the least deviation from the line. Although this progression agrees with the theory, the actual values obtained differ slightly from the values expected; this is shown through the estimated values of the unknown mass recorded in Table 1. This difference could be the result of a number of factors: uncertainties in the values for the 100g masses used; the fact we are assuming a point load even though the masses provide a distribution of the weight and interference. The use of an AC current produces a small magnetic field which can cause an electromotive force in any wires that are not shielded properly. This small voltage change could be picked up by the voltmeter and slightly alter the measurements. The unknown mass was measured to be 236.4g by the digital scale. The most accurate estimate calculated by an electrical circuit was 241.9g by the Wheatstone quarter bridge with differential amplifier. The possible reasons for discrepancies between values can include the limitation of the amplifier gain due to electrical noise and temperature changes in the wire. The latter can be a problem as an increase in temperature corresponds to an increase in resistance which can affect measured values. However, this error is reduced in the half bridge configuration as, with a strain gauge sensor on both the top and bottom of the bar, the effect of temperature change cancels itself out. Finally, the Youngs Modulus value obtained through this experiment is significantly outside the expected range of 190-210 GPa, at 46.6 GPa. This can mainly be attributed to irregularities in the dimensions of the steel beam used the section of the beam where the gauges were installed was slightly smaller than the rest of the beam to allow for the necessary preparation. Referring back to equation 4 in the introduction section, the inclusion of a term shows that the thickness of the beam has the greatest effect on the calculated stress, and therefore this discrepancy in values has a significant effect on the value of Youngs Modulus calculated. To achieve a value for Youngs Modulus of 200 GPa, a thickness of 0.47cm would be required. To conclude, the experiment outlined in this report was useful in demonstrating the varying levels of accuracy of measurements which can be achieved through different forms of electrical circuits, validating the expectation that weight resolution, and therefore accuracy, would increase as the circuits progressed from a potential divider to a Wheatstone quarter bridge with differential amplifier, with the latter providing the most reliable output voltage results and the highest weight resolution. However, the result obtained for the Youngs Modulus of steel, of 46.6 GPa, through the measurements recorded in this experiment, highlights how many of the variables associated with electrical circuits have large uncertainties which can lead to extreme unreliability in the data measured and consequently the final results. The findings of this experiment are statistically insignificant due to the nature of the apparatus used compared to that used in industry. However, it does effectively illustrate the importance of reducing the effect of possible sources of error before an experiment is performed, as well as taking the time to precisely measure all of the necessary results throughout, as a slight inaccuracy in one measurement can significantly affect the final values. Mass (g) Weight (N) Voltage across Strain Gauge (V) 0 0 1.128 100 0.981 1.129 200 1.962 1.129 300 2.943 1.130 400 3.924 1.130 500 4.905 1.131 Unknown 1.130 Potential Divider Wheatstone Quarter Bridge Mass (g) Weight (N) Output Voltage (mV) 100 0.981 0.2 200 1.962 0.4 300 2.943 0.6 400 3.924 0.8 500 4.905 1 Unknown 0.4 Wheatstone Half Bridge Mass (g) Weight (N) Output Voltage (mV) 100 0.981 0.3 200 1.962 0.7 300 2.943 1.1 400 3.924 1.5 500 4.905 2.0 Unknown 0.8 Wheatstone Quarter Bridge with Amplifier Mass (g) Weight (N) Amplified Voltage (mV) 100 0.981 9.8 200 1.962 19.9 300 2.943 30.1 400 3.924 40.2 500 4.905 50.3 Unknown 24.2 [1] H. Eren and C. C. Fung, Electrical Engineering Vol.II Instrumentation Systems, Perth. [2] Omega, What is a strain gauge?, [Online]. Available: http://www.omega.co.uk/prodinfo/straingauges.html. [Accessed 17 April 2016]. [3] Electronics Tutorials Staff, Wheatstone Bridge, [Online]. Available: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/blog/wheatstone-bridge.html. [Accessed 17 April 2016]. [4] Precision Weighing Balances, Scale and Balance Definitions in Simple Terms, [Online]. Available: http://www.scalenet.com/applications/glossary.html. [Accessed 17 April 2016]. [5] Comsol, The Joule Heating Effect, [Online]. Available: https://www.comsol.com/multiphysics/the-joule-heating-effect. [Accessed 17 April 2016]. [6] D. R. Ngwompo, Measurements Using Strain Gauge Lab Sheet, Bath, 2016.
Saturday, January 18, 2020
Irony in Macbeth Essay
Irony: †¦ an event or result that is the opposite of what is expected. Many situations in Macbeth have unexpected results that are deemed as ironic. Lady Macbeth, the one who originally was labeled as evil becomes frail and weak, and succumbs to the madness that she is driven to by her guilty conscience. Macbeth the one who was so hesitant is now ruled by his greedy, murderous, impulsiveness. Macbeth was once a loyal, valiant soldier who appreciated the King. He then turns his trust and fate into the hands of the supernatural and starts increasingly putting his need for guidance of what he should do, and what will become of him, into the hands of three witches. He starts committing evil acts of murder out of what he feels is his best interest but also out of irrational impulsiveness. Lady Macbeth, initially, makes herself out to be evil â€Å"Lady Macbeth: †¦Come, you spirits/ That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, / And fill me, from the crown to the toe top-full/ Of direst cruelty!†(William Shakespeare I.v.43-46). She then backs down with many excuses when it comes down to performing the task of murdering Duncan. Lady Macbeth who was once strong, and believed she could tolerate her guilt falls into a state of insanity that eventually leads to her demise. Ironic changes occur in people when greed, dominance, and irrationality replace moral conscience, and social values. One realizes Macbeth is loyal to the king and in turn is respected by the king when Duncan presents the title Thane of Cawdor to Macbeth. In the quote â€Å"No more that thane of Cawdor shall deceive/ †¦And with his former title greet Macbeth†(I.ii.73-75) one can see the trust and respect Duncan has for Macbeth. Duncan believes Macbeth to be such a valiant soldier that he awards his loyalty to Scotland with allowing him the honor of being chosen to be the Thane of Cawdor, because the previous thane of Cawdor was executed for being a traitor. After receiving the prophecies, and then finding out he has been given the title Thane of Cawdor Macbeth thinks about how to make the third prophecy, of him becoming king, true. The thought of killing Duncan crosses his mind but immediately he rejects it, and is filled with guilt for having such horrid thoughts. His wife, Lady Macbeth, coaxes Macbeth into planning, and performing Duncan’s murder. Macbeth refuses, at first, to even consider the thought of killing Duncan. He is especially hesitant because Duncan has been so kind to him, and has never wronged him in any way. Lady Macbeth continually insults her husband’s manhood and convinces him that her plan of how to murder Duncan is fool proof. He gives in, he still believes it is wrong but comes to the conclusion it is the only way he will be able to attain the position of king. After the deed, of killing Duncan, is done he experiences and immense feeling of guilt. The irony of Macbeth killing Duncan, the King of Scotland, can be looked at in two views, of how the old thane of Cawdor was a traitor, and Macbeth has now turned into a traitor, also because Macbeth was a General in the Kings army and risked his life during wars to protect not only his country but the King. Macbeth was given the title thane of Cawdor when it was believed that the old thane of Cawdor was a traitor. Macbeth himself assumes the position of being a traitor, as he killed Duncan for his own personal gain and went against the social values of his country, that he once fought to keep, in addition to fighting for the values of his country he also was fighting to keep his country under the reining of Duncan as King. Macbeth lost his passiveness, decided to put trust into the prophecies of the witches by taking fate into his own hands. Lady Macbeth feels that she is able to be brave, and strong in order to accomplish the gruesome task, of murdering Duncan, herself if need be. Lady Macbeth calls to the supernatural to take her feminine character and replace it with evil. One can see Lady Macbeth’s desperation to become all that is not considered to be womanly weaknesses in the quote ††¦Come, you spirits/ That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here,/ And fill me, from the crown to the toe, top-full/ Of direst cruelty!†(I.v.43-46), here it is seen that she is calling on the supernatural to make her evil. She also states, while progressing with getting the soldiers drunk, â€Å"That which hath made them drunk hath/ made me bold; †¦Ã¢â‚¬ (II.ii.1-2), the alcohol has given her a sense of newfound bravery and strength. Lady Macbeth makes excuses, to Macbeth, as to why she was unable to bring herself to murder Duncan. Lady Macbeth, on the arrival of Macbeth to the court, immediately starts to talk about what she has done to help the murder go as planned but makes excuses as to why she could not kill Duncan â€Å"†¦Had he not resembled/ My father as he slept, I had done’t.†(II.ii.16-17) Lady Macbeth expects her husband to do something that not even she was able to bring herself to accomplish. Lady Macbeth was constantly reminding Macbeth that she could do the deed herself if she was given the chance, but in the end she backed out and made excuses and put her husband in the position of having to murder Duncan himself. Although Lady Macbeth bravery seemed legitimate, we saw that when it came time to do the unsightly task she was unable to bring herself to it, and even though she found it to be too awful of a feat for her to complete she still expected Macbeth to finish the hanest murder if for no other reason than obligation to her. Lady Macbeth complained that her husband was incapable of hiding his emotions and his inability to accept committing a senseless crime for personal gain. Lady Macbeth is telling Macbeth how to hide his guilt in this quote ††¦look like the innocent flower,/ But be the serpent under it†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (I.v.72-72). Here it is noted that she wants her husband to act and appear like nothing is wrong, and nothing out of the ordinary is going on, but to also be ready and waiting to strike when the time is right. Lady Macbeth is trying to encourage Macbeth that the assassination of Duncan is the only path that will take him to the role of King, that even though killing Duncan is a rather evil thing to do it must be done, and once Macbeth is king he will see that it was worth it. Macbeth is transformed into an impulsive, irrational fiend, who is willing to take any steps necessary to remove anyone who may get in the way of his rein as King. Whereas Lady Macbeth’s guilty conscience is slowly destroying her vitality, and she begins to drown herself in a guilt stricken state of madness. Macbeth no longer relies on his wife to give him support, courage, and insight within his evil deeds. He continually visits the witches’ advice of how to prolong his rein of king, and who not to trust. He begins to kill, with a guiltless conscience, for vengeance. Lady Macbeth falls deeper, and deeper into a state of neurosis that the guilt of her conscience has forced her into, she is now weak and unable to sleep, her nights are filled with constant bouts of sleepwalking trying to wash the blood off her hands. Their roles have been reversed Macbeth is evil and strong; Lady Macbeth is becoming more and more fragile. No longer is Macbeth the worried one who is constantly horrified by his own actions, he is the strong one who seemingly now has no social conscience and acts solely on the animal instinct of his Id. Lady Macbeth has fallen victim to her own sins, she was the one who once said â€Å"†¦ A little water clears us of this deed:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (II.ii.85) Now she spends sleepless nights attempting to wash the imaginary blood away. Lady Macbeth who seemed powerful in the beginning let her life be shattered by haste and greed, as the once seemingly weaker Macbeth rose into a monster. Irony takes many forms through out the play, not only to create dramatic effect, but also to show the uprising of Macbeth through his newfound evilness, and the downfall of Lady Macbeth as she descends further and further into the insanity brought on by her eagerness for Macbeth to become King by any means necessary. Once a loyal, well liked Nobleman, Macbeth, in a simple run in with the supernatural turned into a hated, unworthy, King. Lady Macbeth’s external bravery in planning the murder is then proved to be an act when faced with the real situation and not just the scenario. Evil can be easily transferred, and as it progresses it is easy to see who has enough strength to be able to deal with the torture of the guilt. Through the irony of the changes in Macbeth, one is able to relate to how easy it can be to be engulfed in horror yet be blinded by the desire of wanting, and needing more for no other reason than personal gain.
Friday, January 10, 2020
Reported News on Essay Topics for Junior High School Revealed
Reported News on Essay Topics for Junior High School Revealed To choose which subject you're likely to discuss, it's vital to see the complete collection of good persuasive speech topics from the specific area of study. A student ought to keep in contact with the hottest trends and know which topics essay topics are related to sound convincing in regards to defending personal opinions. In high school, you're supposed to select the type of topic you're going to be in a position to dig into that is, you must make sure that you can come across enough info on the matter. Research-based topics require students to collect information till they write. As soon as you have the topic, answer the question and support your answer with three or more explanations for why you believe it. This topic is extremely hot and interesting. For example, let's say you decide on the very first topic from our list. Don't opt for a wide topic. Life, Death and Essay Topics for Junior High School Quite simply, everything would be contingent on verifiable fact an expository essay. Another good idea is to receive some absolutely free essay examples of different sorts and on various subjects to find a general idea of the way in which a thriving debatable paper looks. One of the very first things to think about is what sort of essay you will write. A student ought to keep in contact with the hottest trends and know which persuasive essay topics are related to sound convincing in regards to defending personal opinions. Details of Essay Topics for Junior High School Students need to go for the particular part to support or go against the subject. Ch ildren watch an excessive amount of television. They should be required to read more. See this page for a whole collection of History Speech Topics. Parents should speak to kids about drugs at a youthful age. Teens should be asked to take parenting classes. They should be able to choose their bedtime. They also have a lot more accidents. Directions for Writing Before you start writing, think of why Florida is a great spot for vacations. Students may write informational essays several ways. Parents of bullies should need to pay a fine. Other individuals think that it wouldn't help. Spam mail needs to be outlawed. Fun topics are an excellent method to get individuals to listen to what you've got to say, because when they're entertained they listen school carefully. Snow days are excellent for family quality time. The Basic Facts of Essay Topics for Junior High School The major body should be broken into a set of logically connected paragraphs, each presenting a spec ific point. Also, don't forget that you'll have to deliver some factual evidence for your opinion (after all, any academic paper needs to be supported by academically recognized sources), thus don't go for subjects which are purely opinionated and don't have any possibility of justification. Before your teen starts writing an essay they need to make a fast plan of what it is that they're likely to write about. Choose a single war from history, and explore the function of physical geography in at least two main battles. The guide lists the school ways to begin a fantastic essay. Nobody really wishes to compose an essay. In reality, you might have been requested to compose persuasive essay without actually realising it. Explain your solution in an in depth essay. Test essay questions will be contingent on the topic, needless to say. Categories, essay topics might be divided into. Have a look at the sample essay to establish whether it has all the info. You might be offered a list of essay prompts to pick from. Directions for Writing Think about the significance of experiencing a mobile phone. Yearly driving tests ought to be mandatory over a specific age. They should be mandatory for the first five years after getting a license. Top quality drugs with quick shipping. The Lost Secret of Essay Topics for Junior High School Imagine your school does not own a school newspaper. Imagine that you're a high school student. Think of what you could do in order to make your school more beautiful. Think of one thing you're expected to learn in school that you don't think ought to be included in the curriculum. Some schools in america are requiring that students volunteer for a number of hours each semester to aid on a community issue. No w write to spell out the reasons Florida is a favorite spot for vacations. The USA lags behind many nations in education.
Thursday, January 2, 2020
Uses of Internet Protocol - 703 Words
Introduction: Internet Protocol (IP) technology was developed in the 1970s to support some of the first research computer networks. Today all machine, be it used at home, in an office or educational or research centre are connected on a network and have a unique identifier address. Just like you would address a letter to send in the post, computers use a unique identifier to send data to specific computers on a network. Most networks today, including all computers on the Internet, use the TCP/IP protocol as the standard for how to communicate on the network. In the TCP/IP protocol, the unique identifier for a computer is called its IP address. Two standard versions of IP addressing exist today. Traditional home computer networks use IP version 4 (IPv4), other networks, usually those at educational and research institutions, have adopted the IP version 6 (IPv6). IPv4 uses 32 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. 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