Within the context of project management, critically assess the nature Essay

Within the context of project management, critically assess the nature and importance of value - Essay Example Naturally, such a process necessarily is oftentimes nearly synonymous with leadership. Moreover, effective project management must engender good leadership qualities if it is to champion the quality of inspiration over coercion; choosing to allow for the possibility of trailblazing new ideas rather than merely following a prescriptive playbook of actions based upon needs. Further, effective project management, although prized and likely a commodity that is lacking within the current professional and political world, is not often appreciated within many of the largest multinational corporations throughout the world. This is of course due to the fact that oftentimes management is expected to be carried out utilizing a rather formulaic approach that does not rely upon the leadership capacity or imagination of the individual. However, leadership/project management itself entails a great deal more than mere direction. Corollary parts of trust, belief, and mutual understanding between peop le are necessary components that cannot and should not be diminished. In this way, effective project management seeks to bring about positive value. ... ving into the step-by-step discussion of how the different management theories relate to an interpretation of leadership and project management within the current model, it must be understood that leadership and project management are two distinctly interconnected concepts. Whereas management refers to the actual process of accomplishing tasks, focusing resources, and mitigating risks, leadership engenders a more nuanced and personal understanding of how a given individual can encourage cooperation and respect within the employees/stakeholders in question (Mayer et al., 2012). By much the same token, project management has a number of roles and functions whereas leadership is not judged by easily quantifiable metrics. For instance, project management roles and functions can include, but are not limited to, decision-making, problem-solving, motivation, influencing, negotiating, delegation, and communication (Sharma, 2013). This is not meant to state that leadership does not engender m any of the same requirements. However, leadership is something that should not be understood to exist wholly separate from the management process. Rather, the two, in an ideal interpretation and application, must exist side-by-side as a means of providing the best overall product and experience to all individuals involved within the process (Muethel et al., 2012). In such a way, one of the best means of measuring effective leadership is to seek to engage with effective project management and ensure that these determinants are met first and foremost. Only once effective project management is realized, can true leadership tickets form (Patel, 2012). This is not to state that leadership must follow managerial process and/or theory 100% of the time. Rather, past instances have proven that many

The Ugly Duckling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Ugly Duckling - Essay Example The collection of plots was chosen because the picturesque version extremely makes children not only listen to the story but also try to read and understand the picture and make up the conversation. The background of images gives special meaning to the text and helps to integrate words and meaning into the image. Children can express the known text content of books through their observation. The history of the ugly duckling gives a mixed message. While parents can encourage children to become like an ugly duckling who continues to optimistically seek out his true identity and refuses to become like others. Like an ugly duckling, children are taught to sit and learn to get up and not be influenced by the opinions of others. More importantly, parents and teachers can use this story as an important tool for developing critical thinking among children and encourage them to use their imagination when they are in their places. This is an interesting way to teach them to have a broader pers pective. Children also learn that everything they love should be pursued, as they help children understand their potential. The book also tends to send a negative message about the development of an inferiority complex among children, and this ugliness is bad. This is not so, so parents must confront this problem by reporting that it was not ugly, but different. Therefore, people look at people and form impressions that may be wrong, as in the case of the ugly duckling who was called ugly simply because he was not like others.

World Heritage Analysis (Ilocandia) Essay Example for Free

World Heritage Analysis (Ilocandia) Essay Directions: Considering the World Heritage Sites you will visit in the Ilocos Region (Church of San Agustin in Paoay , La Asuncion dela Nuestra Senora in Sta. Maria, Ilocos Sur and the Historic Town of Vigan) find answers to the following questions by observing, interviewing, researching, etc. 1. What makes the Ilocandia a World Heritage Site? Vigan represents a unique fusion of Asian building design and construction with European colonial architecture and planning. Criterion (iv): Vigan is an exceptionally intact and well preserved example of a European trading town in East and South-East Asia. 2. What are the threats that face the world heritage sites? Natural threats such as earthquake, natural decay, tidal waves and typhoons might affect or damage the World Heritage Site in Ilocandia because most of them are cultural heritage. 3. What brings about the successful preservation of these world heritage sites? First objective: Fortify the sense of identity and pride of the community on their historic city. Second objective: To institutionalize local protective measures and development plans to ensure continuity of programs and involvement of stakeholders. Third objective: Forge local and international linkages. Fourth objective: Develop Vigan as a tourist destination where tourism programs enrich and conserve the people’s core values and traditions, as well as sustain livelihood and employment for bigueà ±os. 4. What is protected in the world heritage sites? They are protecting the historical significance and/or value of the cultural heritage sites (ancestral buildings and some of the Baroque churches in the Philippines) and the history and culture that it has left. 5. How are world heritage sites protected? What protection measures do they follow? (Localized your answers based on your local findings) a. An ordinance defining the boundaries of the protected historic district specifying the core and buffer zones. b. An ordinance providing the general conservation guidelines for Vigan ancestral houses and specifying the compatible uses of structures within the historic district. c. An executive order creating a multi-sectoral Vigan conservation council to promote involvement of local stakeholders. This council serves as a clearing house for all d. applications for building permits within the historic district. Clear-cut and specific steps in securing permits for house restorations were designed. e. An ordinance enacting the Vigan conservation code prescribing detailed guidelines for conservation of Vigan ancestral houses. f. An ordinance providing a yearly allocation of one percent of Vigan’s internal revenue allotment for arts, culture and tourism. 6. What impacts the presence of visitors have on world heritage sites and the host community? Through their conservation program, Vigan’s traditional industries continue  to fuel the economy and provide employment opportunities to the residents. With an annual income of 800,000 dollars in 1995, it grew over the years reaching our current income of 4.2 million dollars. The added revenues enable us to deliver basic services. 7. What steps are adopted in order to influence and encourage visitors toward adopting responsible behavior during their visit (and even afterwards)? Unlike in El Nido, Palawan, I have not seen nor heard that Ilocandia has their code of conduct for their visitors. Because, in truth it is into the visitor’s common sense to respect this world heritage sites. 8. Do they have codes of responsible conduct for visitors at heritage sites? How are they used? There is a signage in Paoay Church not only indicates visiting schedules but also regulations requesting people to behave in a responsible and civilized manner. This move is reflective of how people vandalize important monuments, even places of worship. The signage talks about dress codes, off-limit areas and even warns people from urinating along the side of the church between the buttresses. 9. How does the local organization enhance the quality of visitors’ experience? Last year, August 2010, Ilocos Norte Governor, Imee Marcos presented Norte Tourism Master Plan, they are aiming for an airport-driven urban development. I guess their main target is tourists from other countries. The governor also promoted through national media the Sand dune adventure in Suba. 10. How can the quality of heritage visitation be improved at the World Heritage Sites? They have provided ready access of information in Vigan for the local and international community through website. They also revitalized existing people’s organizations and encouraged the creation of new ones to become active partners in the transformation of their community. 11. What are the visitor problems they encounter at the World Heritage Sites? The problems that they encounter with the visitors or guests are minimal, for example, whenever visiting a museum or an old house, there is a signage that reads â€Å"Do not touch† or â€Å"Do not sit† simple problems. 12. What are the Top 5 characteristics of a great experience at these World Heritage Sites? 5th is that feeling when before I only saw it in a picture but at that particular time, I have seen in built right there, with my own eyes. :)4th hearing Ma’am Tina talk about everything she knows about those places, the shock, awe, and the knowledge that I gain. 3rd Is that I have heard how they speak, the local folks, tasted their food, watched how they cook, just simply observing them, their culture and trying to see the differences that the Ilocanos and Capampangan has.2nd When I was there, I felt and thought, like, â€Å"how did they survived the Spanish colony back then?† It is like at that moment I wished to go back in time. And 1st is that I have laid my foot on the floor of those places which are part of the World Heritage Sites. 13. How do the local people in the area help to protect the heritage values of these World Heritage Sites? There was a popular movement among community members to have the ancient status of Vigan as a city restored. In the plebiscite of January 22, 2001, â€Å"An act validating and recognizing the creation of the City of Vigan by the Royal Decree of September 7, 1758 issued by King Fernando VI of Spain† it was ratified by an overwhelming 93% affirmative votes. 14. What tourism services are offered to the visitors? Tourism services such as accommodation (hotels and restaurants), recreation services (Pagudpud beach, Sand dunes in Suba) travel agencies and/or tour operator services, tourist guide services, and other related services. 15. Why are these World Heritage places important? Heritage sites in Ilocos Sur and Norte (Vigan Heritage Village, Paoay Church, Sta. Maria Church) are important places for it stand as passive witnesses to the major events in Philippine history. These are not only beautiful landmarks but also monuments that mark time. The two churches symbolize the  need to protect religious places by the way the Spaniards built massive structures even if it took them many years to finish. The following definitions of social, aesthetic, historic and scientific values are from the Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance (the Burra Charter) (1992) and the Draft Guidelines for the protection and management and use of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural heritage places (1998). The definitions of biological diversity, ecosystems and geological values are from the Australian Natural Heritage (7 charter standards and principles for the conservation of places of natural heritage significance (1996). SOCIAL VALUES Social value to the community embraces the qualities for which a place is a focus of spiritual, traditional, economic, political, national or other cultural sentiment to the majority or minority group. * Is the place important to the community as a landmark or local signature? In what ways, and to what extent? Both, but they see the place more as a landmark than a local signature. Because the local people are still trying to preserve the history that the place, particularly the World Heritage Sites, conveys. * Is the place important as part of community identity? In what ways, and to what extent? Yes, Vigan is known for it shows the remains of what has happened in the past (history) and observing the community there, I noticed that unlike here in Angeles, or in any other cities, they are a bit conservative, maybe because they still possess the â€Å"Dalagang Pilipina† identity. And they are proud to be Ilocanos, Mrs. Angel Alvarez-Lao would be a very great example. * Is the place important to the community because an attachment to it has developed from long use? What is the length and strength of that attachment? Yes, because they benefit from the place because it is visited by tourists  from all over the world. And at the same time, maybe, because of that significant place a culture might have evolved. They are tightly attached to it, when I got there I have seen long lines of souvenir shops, an evidence of the pride they have as part of that community. * Which community values the place? The whole community values the place, because the local government has made several ordinance and the local people followed suit. A proof that they approve of the beatification of their community. * What is the relative importance of the place to the group or community (compared to other places important to it)? The place is important to them because aside from they get something from it, their tradition, culture, and their language was made through the past which the place represents. * Is the place associated with a particular person or group important in your community’s history? What is the importance of the association between this place and that person or group? There are a lot of important persons who grew up or stayed in this land. The second President of the Republic of the Philippines was born in Ilocos, as well as former President Ferdinand Marcos. Both of them have done good things for their region, especially Marcos. * Is the place valued by a community for reasons of religious, spiritual, cultural, educational or social associations? In what ways, and to what extent? Yes, in terms of religion Ilocos is known for the Baroque churches that were built there during the Spanish era. Culturally, yes, because these places represents how some/most of their traditions and cultures were made. Educationally, yes, Ilocos is known nationally for its beauty and especially  the stories behind those beautiful places. Socially, of course, for they meet a lot of people in their everyday lives. AESTHETIC VALUES Aesthetic value to the community includes aspects of sensory perception (sight, touch, sound, taste, smell) for which criteria can be stated. These criteria may include consideration of form, scale, colour, texture and material of the fabric or landscape, and the smell and sounds associated with the place and its use. * Does the place have natural or cultural features which are inspirational or evoke strong feelings or special meanings? What are those features, and to what extent are they evocative? Is the place a distinctive feature that is a prominent visual landmark? In terms of cultural features Ilocos has the Baroque churches and of course the Vigan Heritage Village, as I’ve said many times now, it does have special meaning not only to the locals but also to every Filipino, for they are the witnesses of what has happened in the past. Yes, it is a landmark, people outside the country knows Ilocos because of this World Heritage sites. * Does the place evoke awe from its grandeur of scale? To what extent is this important? Yes it does, it would not be part of the World Heritage list if it is not. It is important that they would really have to preserve so that its grandeur would be maintained. * Does the place evoke a strong sense of age, history or time depth? How does it do this, and to what extent? It does, it is like when you look at it, you went back in time when the Spanish colony was reigning. The structure is still the same; the only difference is that it obviously looks old. Yet, its beauty still remains. * Is the place symbolic for its aesthetic qualities? Has it been represented in art, poetry, photography, literature, folk-art, folklore mythology or other imagery? The place has its aesthetic qualities, the genuineness and originality of this site is still intact to it. It has been showcased in different museums, the photographs as well as paintings of the Paoay Church, Vigan Heritage Village, and the Sta. Maria Church. * Does the place have outstanding composition qualities involving any combinations of color, form, texture, detail, movement, unity, sounds, scents, spatial definition and so on? To what extent is this important? The three heritage sites which can be  found in Ilocos Sur and Ilocos Norte possesses outstanding combination qualities such as its form, texture, and details, the architectural design of this three are known for it is unique structure. HISTORIC VALUES Historic value to the community encompasses the history of aesthetics, science and society, and therefore could be used to encompass a range of values. A place may have historic value because it has influenced, or has been influenced by, an historic figure, event, phase or activity. It may be the site of an important event. History can describe the ‘story’ of a place or its people and can apply to any period, though not usually the current period. * Is the place important in showing patterns in the development of the history of the country, State or Territory where your community lives or a feature of your local area? How does it show this? It shows the development of the history of the country, yes, before the Philippines is under the Spanish colony, but currently the Philippines is an independent (not really though) and democratic country, in this way I could say yes. * Does the place have indigenous plant species that have historic significance? The name Vigan was derived from Biga, a giant taro plant that grows abundantly along the banks of the Mestizo River. Another one is tobacco, in the past there had been a tobacco monopoly, it was only after 100 years King Alfonso XII lifted the tobacco monopoly. This has been part of their history, and until now they continuously harvest tobacco. * Does the place show a high degree of creative or technical achievement? How does it show this? Creative yes, in Vigan, the architectural structures of the fast-food chains (found in the last page) resembles the old houses in Vigan. Technically too, Bangui Windmills which can be found in Pagudpud, Ilocos Norte had done a great job to the local people, they can get free power supply through this windmills. * Does the place have geological features that have historic significance? There is, Mrs. Lao told us a story that she had been trying to prove it was a research by his late grandfather Emilio Alvarez. The sunken village of Paoay lake (San Juan Village) said to sink because of a tremendous earthquake due to the three volcanoes which erupted all at the same time. * Is the place associated with a particular person  or group important in your history? What is the importance of the association between this place and that person or group? It is; this Paoay Lake had been as I have said a research by Mr. Emilio Alvarez, and by the time Ma’am Angel is graduating her thesis was about this sunken village, and she proved that what his late grandfather’s findings were real. * Does the place exemplify the works of a particular architect or designer, or of a particular design style? In what ways, and to what extent? It is the most evident and only surviving example in the Philippines that shows Spanish urban planning of the early 18th century that conforms to the Ley de las Indias that regulates the layout, street patterns, and open spaces of all new settlements planned during the Spanish empire. * Is the place associated with a particular event in the history of your area, or the State, Territory or nation? What is the relationship between this place and those events? In the national history of the Philippines, Vigan has played an important role. It was the center of the Basi Revolt (1807) and the Ilocos Revolt (1762-63) led by Diego and Gabriela Silang. It was the birthplace of Fr Josà © Burgos whose martyrdom polarized the revolution against the Spanish. Other historic personalities are Leona Florentino, the first Filipina poetess be internationally acclaimed. Her son, Isabelo de los Reyes, founded the Philippine labor movement. The Second President of the Philippine Republic, Elpidio Quirino, was born in Vigan. While Sarat, is the birthplace of Ferdinand Marcos, his administration ruled for 20 years. * Does the place demonstrate ways of life, customs, processes, land use or design no longer practiced, in danger of being lost, or of exceptional interest? How does it demonstrate these things? The local people in Vigan still posses their customs, they are actually known to be â€Å"kuripot† and yes they are. After the inscription, the Vigan Conservation Council (VCC) was made. This council conserves and preserves the beauty and integrity of the Vigan Heritage Village. * Does the place exemplify the characteristics of a particular type of human activity in the landscape, including way of life, custom, process, land use, function, design or technique? In what ways, and to what extent? During the Spanish era, yes, but at the present time, somehow it does not. In a way the local people in Ilocos have been urbanized. Their way of life had already changed, though  some still remains. * Does the place reflect a variety of changes over a long time? In what ways, and to what extent? Yes it had, starting from how the houses are built, very far from the unique style before. The Bangui windmills are one of the developments in Ilocos Region. This kind of development is unavoidable and somehow natural and besides this are positive developments. SCIENTIFIC VALUES Scientific value to the community will depend upon the importance of the data involved, on its rarity, quality or representativeness, and on the degree to which the place may contribute further substantial information. * Is the place important for natural values in showing patterns in natural history or continuing ecological, earth or evolutionary processes? In what ways, and to what extent? It is, though Pagudpud beach is not part of the World Heritage List or even in their tentative list, the natural beauty of this island is awesome. Another thing is that Ilocos is near South China Sea. * Is there anything about the place or at the place which is rare or endangered, for example, plant or animal species, geological features, a type of construction method or material used, or a particular form of archaeological evidence? Researchers from Mariano Marcos State University (MMSU) found that 113 plant species in Ilocos Norte are vanishing: 16 vegetables, 31 fruits and forest tree species, 43 ornamentals and medicinals, 7 rootcrops and 16 other plant species. * Is the place important in helping others to understand this type of place? In what ways, and to what extent? Yes, and not just the place but also understanding the culture and the history behind it. Ilocandia is one of the best tourist spots in the country. * Is the place a good example of a particular type of place, that is, undisturbed, intact and complete? Why is this? Pagudpud beach is, according to the locals they are afraid that when the beach might boom or click to the tourists, what happened to Boracay in Aklan might happen to Pagudpud too. This is why in Pagudpud they do not have much of other activities besides boat riding. * Can the place contribute to research understanding of natural or cultural history? In what ways, and to what extent? They can, the local Government of Ilocos have been doing or implementing laws that helps the local people and the visitors towards understanding more of Ilocandia’s natural and cultural  history. * Can the place contribute to scientific understanding of biodiversity or geodiversity? In what ways, and to what extent? Biodiversity yes, Ilocos is not just rich in culture but it is also rich in living species, some of it are even endangered, and has a great possibility of extinction. Knowing this the local government should at least try to look into this and do something about it. SPECIAL VALUES Special values to the community can be considered as part of other values but are particularly important for some places and some communities. * Does the place have important values relating to spiritual beliefs? Yes, in fact two of the Baroque churches in the Philippines that are listed in the World Heritage List can be found in Ilocandia. Spaniards are said to be the one or are the one who brought us the Catholic religion. * Is the place spiritually important for maintaining the fundamental health and well-being of natural and cultural systems? Yes, and not just for the natural and cultural systems, but of course to every Filipino who believes in the works and goodness of Christ. * Are there wilderness or wild river values recognized at the place? No, there is none.

Gender Differences in the Workforce

Gender Differences in the Workforce The contention that women’s roles in having a career results in the creation of a problem with regard to them achieving a balance between their work and lives finds its roots in the rights and equality issues women have faced throughout the ages. The subject is not a contemporary one, although this tends to be the common perception due to scant references to resources dating back centuries as a result of either suppression or the lack of relevant data in books. In fact, such information is available via research in many journals and letters. The sources of the conception that a woman’s career somehow takes second precedence to being a wife, mother or homemaker are founded in a number of myths, prejudicial thinking, misguided notions and historical contexts that have fostered them as second class citizens. A large percentage of feminists believe that the status of women being regarded as second-class citizens is a result of patriarchy being the foundation that modern society was built upon and that this fostered thinking, attitudes and conceptions that relegated them to secondary roles instead of being regarded as equals. The foregoing notion(s) shall be examined from a number of standpoints to clarify the unenlightened views held by some in this regard. The examination will not be conducted from a feminist point of view, nor shall it seek to explain prevailing views, it shall instead present the relevant facts which the conclusions shall be drawn from. The simple truth is that women have been balancing multiple roles through history and the insertion of the role of career can be equated to any number of functions that they have performed and accomplished. Chapter 1 – Introduction 1.1 Background In order to set the context for the discussion regarding the contention that women’s roles in having careers poses a problem in their achieving balance between work and life, the first salient fact that needs tube established is that women constitute 3,209,000,000 of the world’s total population estimate of 6,477,450,857 (Population Reference Bureau, 2006). This means that the under utilization of women represents a 50% reduction in the number of available individuals that can make a contribution in professional terms. Chart 1 – Education Variables – Women (Population Reference Bureau, 2006) Demographic Variable Country Data Women All Ages, 2005 World 3,209,000,000 All Educational Variables Literacy Women as % of Literate Men, Ages 15-24, 2000-04 World 92 Secondary School Enrolment, Female, 2000-03 (as % of school-age enrolment) World 93 As the preceding chart indicates, the slight difference in overall literacy rates does not put women at a disadvantage in terms of educational qualifications, yet their unemployment rate remains considerably higher proportionally. As shown from the following chart, women comprise approximately 40% of today’s work force yet their participation rates indicate bias (see Chart 3 – Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rates and the Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males, 2003): Chart 2 – Global Labour Market Indicators / 1993 and 2003 (International Labour Organization, 2004) Female Male Total 1993 2003 1993 2003 1993 2003 Labour force (millions) 1,006 1,208 1,507 1,769 2,513 2,978 Employment (millions) 948 1,130 1,425 1,661 2,373 2,792 Unemployment (millions) 58.2 77.8 82.3 108.1 140.5 185.9 Labour force participation rate (%) 53.5 53.9 80.5 79.4 67.0 66.6 Employment-to-population ratio (%) 50.4 50.5 76.1 74.5 63.3 62.5 Unemployment rate (%) 5.8 6.4 5.5 6.1 5.6 6.2 Chart 3 – Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rates and the Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males, 2003 (International Labour Organization, 2004) Male LFPR Female LFPR Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males World 79.4 53.9 68 Middle East and North Africa 76.8 28.2 36 South Asia 81.1 37.4 44 Latin America and the Caribbean 80.5 49.2 64 Industrialized Economies 70.3 50.5 76 Transition Economies 65.7 53.1 91 South-East Asia 82.9 60.5 75 Sub-Saharan Africa 85.3 63.2 77 East Asia 85.1 73.1 83 When wages are factored into the preceding figures, the picture of bias with respect to employed women takes on additional meaning. Chart 4 – Percentage Change in Real Wages/Earnings, Men and Women for Selected Occupations. (International Labour Organization, 2004) Accountant Computer First- Labourer Professional Welder (in banking) programmer Level in nurse in metal in education construction Manu- insurance teacher factoring F M F M F M F M F M F M Bahrain (1993-98) 16 1161 near near -7 131 36 24 1n.a.1 1n.a1 1n.a.1 1n.a1 Belarus (1996-2000) near near near near 100 35 307 323 near near near near Cyprus (1990-2001) near near 44 60 23 12 49 37 26 9 near near Finland (1990-1999) 67 96 44 66 -7 -4 1 8 -7 -6 -10 -1 Jordan (1988-1997) 29 20 -63 -51 25 13 near near -21 -17 near near Korea, Republic of (1990-2001) 91 46 94 73 29 60 115 37 71 229 46 49 Kyrgyzstan (1998-2001) 4 -26 near near -14 -39 4 20 -19 -32 near near Latvia (1997-2001) 39 31 561 142 82 45 36 18 60 33 1 26 Peru (1997-2001) 15 35 -13 -20 34 37 near near near near near near Poland (1998-2001) 28 31 103 70 53 53 13 20 26 29 45 25 Romania (1995-2001) 126 73 1 38 -7 -6 -19 -24 27 17 -22 -20 Singapore (1995-2000) -3 -24 24 43 near near 26 16 9 24 24 19 United Kingdom (1996-2001) 16 1 9 near near near near near near 10 12 near near United States (1990-2000) 9 12 15 6 4 14 near near -2 10 near near From the foregoing it appears that the problem with women’s roles in having a career is the problem that is perceived by others rather than women themselves. The preceding statement is made as a result of the purely statistical information which clearly shows that women want to work and have the basic educational background(s), however wages are a reflection of a perceived difference even when gauged against the same profession. Therefore, there must be other forces, explanations, perceptions and aspects at work. In order to understand the environments outlined by the preceding, it will be necessary to delve into social, gender, historical, economic and other areas in order to develop an understanding of what is at work in even asking the question, as well as answering it. For if the preceding did not consist of underlying causes, then the need to examine the phenomenon would not exist. The foregoing brings us to areas of examination that at first glance might seem disconnected from the context, but in reality are revealing looks into legislative, sociological, cultural, historical and aspects that aid in providing not just facts, but insight as a result of reviewing them in combination as statistical data and appropriate legislation are a result of changing societal views. But legislation alone cannot cause individuals to evolve their views, and herein lies the problem as there are countless examples where the spirit of the law has been subjugated and artificial barriers created or utilized. The preceding are events, circumstances and outgrowths that are not the product of women’s careers being the problem, these are other forces at work making it a problem. 1.2 Historical Perspectives Historically women have managed, just as males have, to multi task. The example of the working male who engages in sports, hunting, boating, wood working, and running multiple businesses does not raise the question as to whether they are neglecting or failing to provide their families with enough fathering time. This is a result of patriarchy which means in literal terms that males make the decisions as a result of them being the dominant aspect in political as well asocial affairs. But, more importantly males own and run the corporations by and large, as well as are dominant in political, military and other manifestations of power. Therefore, whether one elects to think of society at large being patriarchal, it in fact is. Hence, the preceding fosters underlying, hidden and historical perceptions regarding the roles of men and women as established centuries ago. Support for the preceding view can be traced back to Roman law during the period defined as Augustus to Justinian, as represented by27 B.C. to 527 A.D. A Roman woman was regarded as legally capable at the age of thirteen whereby she was permitted to draw up a will(Hacker, 2004). The foregoing however was bound by the condition that she could do so under supervision. Supervision was deemed to either bathe female’s father, male guardian of husband and their consent was essential in order for the will to be executed. The preceding stipulation of male consent remained as a condition over a Roman woman’s life regardless of her age. This condition was explained as being a result of their â€Å"†¦ unsteadiness of character†, â€Å" â€Å"the weakness of the sex†, and â€Å"ignorance of legal matters† (Hacker, 2004, p-3). Evidence of subjugation can also be found in Church history. Canon law states that a wife must be submissive to her husband and that she could not cut off her hair under penalty of excommunication (Hecker,2004, p-9). And in the case of Joan of Arc, it was her breaking of the law stating that a woman who wore men’s garments was accursed, that was one of the charges that resulted in her being burned at the stake(Hacker, 2004, p-9). Similar examples can also be found in British law where under older common law a husband had the authority to â€Å"†¦ correct and chastise his wife† (Hacker, 2004, p-11). The preceding examples are a few of the historical foundations that patriarchy has been built upon and hence the underlying foundation from which the subject of woman’s career roles emanates. Chapter 2 –Segregation in the Workplace 2.1 Segregation Segregation in the workplace constitutes a phenomenon that is linked to sex discrimination, the glass ceiling, patriarchy and unequal wages in that it reinforces stereotyped views, attitudes and traditions. Resin (1984) states that work related sex segregation can be characterized in the following manner, the first is through norms that separate sexes into separate spheres, such as the predominance of females in domestic work and males in construction, and via functional separation whereby males and females do different work in the same work setting. Segregation in the workplace is a further subtle reinforcement of inequality that slowly permeates the conscientiousness of both males and females into accepting this abnormality as being normal. A review of segregation in the workplace in terms of its manifestations shall be examined from a neutral stance in order to gauge perspectives from both sides of the equation. Such will be done from a factual information based perspective. The subject of segregation in the workplace with regard to women is also termed as the ‘Glass Ceiling’. This phrase was developed in the United States during the 1970’s to describe artificial and invisible barriers that were and are created as a result of organizational and attitudinal prejudices that serve to prevent women from assuming top positions in the workplace (Wirth, 2001). As the most visible and publicized example of discrimination and the segregation of women in the work place, the exclusion of females from top positions within corporations is clearly evident by the fact that they hold just 2 to 3 percent of the top positions. Linda Wirth (2001) has stated that women have not reached top positions in major companies and that the foregoing has nothing to do with their lack of abilities. The International Labour Organization (Chart 5) indicates that around fifty percent (59%) of all women are positioned in occupations that cane be termed sex stereotyped. The preceding term is defined as meaning that approximately eighty present (89%) of the workers within these occupations are either males or females whereas management is primarily male dominated position. Chart 5 – Women’s Share of Administrative – Managerial Positions and Their Share of Total Employment, 1994-1995 (Wirth, 2001, p 193) Country Administrative and Managerial Jobs (%) Total Employment (%) Australia 43 42 Austria 22 43 Chile 20 32 Costa Rica 23 30 Ecuador 28 38 Egypt 12 20 Finland 25 47 Israel 19 42 Japan 9 41 Malaysia 19 34 Mexico 20 32 Norway 32 46 Paraguay 23 41 Philippines 33 37 Sri Lanka 17 48 Switzerland 28 40 Turkey 10 30 United Kingdom 33 45 United States 43 46 Uruguay 28 41 Venezuela 23 33 The preceding is an example of how segregation in the workplace extends into wage inequality as well as job satisfaction in that there is a cap on the level of advancement which women can generally aspire to thus slowly dampening their drive and determination in the face of subtle hurdles. Given the predominance of male positioned managers, executives and directors only the most dedicated and brightest of females manage to reach top positions where they still remain underpaid and suffer forms of discrimination in a male dominated environment. The definitive example of work segregation is found in the manner in which men and women are paid for the same work. Chart 4, Percentage Change in Real Wages/Earnings, Men and Women for Selected Occupations, revealed that the fact there has been and is a percentage change in real wage earnings for men and women in selected occupations, means that there was wage disparity in the first place (International Labour Organization, 2004). The idea of traditional occupations represents one of the most pervasive forms of segregation in work whereby males are thought to be either innately qualified or predisposed to work in certain industries. An example of the preceding is demonstrated by the findings of the Equal Opportunities Commission in Scotland based upon research conducted by Caledonian University in Glasgow. Said study found that there are barriers to younger adults pursuing certain career choices and that these include the negative feedback and or attitudes of family, friends and more particularly employers (BBC News, 2005). Said study pointed to the fact that there were just forty-one female apprentices in the entire country that were actively engaged in pursuing a construction career., and only fifty in engineering (BBCNews, 2005). On the opposite side of the coin the same study revealed that just 15 males were pursuing careers as apprentices in childcare. The report concluded that the barriers concerning the recruitment of males for that occupation were the low pay and attitudes of end users regarding the suitability of males in such roles (BBC News, 2005). 2.2 Gender Segregation Gender segregation represents a real issue that is neither subtle nor hidden, yet defies the concept of discrimination in that it prevents females from assuming careers that tend to fall outside of what is either considered feminine or represent male dominated areas whereby their attempt at entry will be greeted with barriers. The conception that there are traditional roles for men and women is countermanded byte fact that fully one-third of Finnish and American entrepreneurs are women, as just one singular example (International Labour Office,2004). The concept of segregation in the workplace has many differing forms and varieties, but it is what it is, segregation. And that fosters the climate that continues the attitudinal as well as prejudicial underpinnings that contribute to the view of woman’s careers as being predisposed to a certain limited sphere as well as inequality. Pascale differences, the conception that certain careers are better suited to women, the disproportionate skew of males in managerial positions as well as the predominate concentrations of females in certain professions and industries reinforce this environment to the detriment of all. Chapter 3 Attitudes Toward Women at Work As pointed out in Chapter 3 – Segregation in the Workplace, certain predefined ideas and conceptions provide the basis that fosters and continues the notion that varied occupations are better suited to women or men. This thinking helps to create an attitudinal atmosphere that reinforces itself in spite of there being proof to the contrary. Evening what we like to think of as our modern and progressive societies of the new millennium, much of the same limited and outdated thinking that existed prior to the 1940’s is still with us, and in spite of all of the legislation, feminist movements and understanding of equal rights, progress in terms of changing or evolving people’s minds has been slowing coming. The aforementioned ‘glass ceiling’ atmosphere is a pervasive climate that permeates throughout the work environment. Its visual manifestations in terms of the male dominated professions and management positions are consistent reminders of the way things are, as well as the way things were. Thus, an examination of attitudes concerning women at work is linked to segregation in the workplace as well as other concepts as they are inexorably tied to one another. The most disturbing examples of attitudes with regard to women at work arise discrimination and sexual harassment, both outgrowths of segregation in the workplace. 3.1 Looking Under the Surface Oddly, the Allies would most likely not have won World War I without women. Not because they were nurses, functioned as telephone operators or were basically secretaries to generals and prime ministers, but because they welded tanks, made munitions, drove tractor-trailers, operated heavy machinery and performed all manner of traditionally male jobs (Wikipedia, 2005). With such a breakthrough in thinking as well as demonstration of female aptitude one would wonders to why the questions of discrimination, work place segregation and unequal pay scales are still with us, yet they are. Once again, the roots of such odd thinking can be traced back to patriarchy, which comes from ancient Greece whereby patria Thus the ramifications of continued second class citizenship with regard to participation in the work force must be explained by ingrained societal foundations, and this is the rationale for the examination of the word patriarchy. Given its foundation of ruler, archer, the platform for at least a partial explanation of the struggle women still face in the workplace seems to have a basis. The foregoing when combined with the ‘glass ceiling’ effect and unequal wage scales brings forth the fact that there is de facto sex discrimination, and these practices create the view that sees women as secondary, or less important workers and individuals. Article 20 of the European Charter of Fundamental Rights, which was enacted in 2000, states that everyone is equal in terms of the law and Article 21 of that legislation states(Silver, 2003): â€Å"Any discrimination based on any ground such as sex, race, colour, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, birth, disability, age or sexual orientation shall be prohibited† The European Charter of Fundamental Rights goes on to add in Article23 that it is understood that it recognizes equality between men and women as being (Silver, 2003): â€Å"†¦ in all areas, including employment, work and pay, without preventing measures providing for specific advantages in favour of thunder-represented sex† The language as well as intent leaves no room for misinterpretation with regard to the stance of the European Union and thus the obligations of all member nations. The problem with the foregoing is that it had to be legislated rather than being a part of the social fabric. And, as it is with all regulations, laws and legislation, penalties form the basis for compliance where common sense and morality do not prevail. Once again, the ingrained thinking of centuries of cultural and traditional foundations of patriarchal societies is at work slowing the process. And while there has been and is progress in terms of the opportunities open to women, these areas pale in comparison to the overall number taken as a whole. The International Labour Organization (2003) found that while women represent forty present (40%) of the labour force, their proportion of managerial positions is fewer than twenty present (20%). Its studies also uncovered that the higher the management position, the less women are represented. The latest figures on top corporate positions found that women constituted just a 2 to 3 present representation (International Labour Organization, 2003, p-5). The preceding, while limited to managerial considerations, is clear indication of the prevailing attitude in the workplace regarding careers involving women. It points to the ‘glass ceiling’ effect and the fact that within the structures as well as processes of society and organizations that there is inherent discrimination that transcends legislation through the application of slow and frustrating practices. The correlation of attitudes in the workplace is best exemplified through what is and has transpired as a result of historical employment patterns. Developed economies such as the United Kingdom and Switzerland report that slightly over ten present (10%) and twelve present (12%), respectively, of executives in these countries were women as of 1999 (International Labour Organization, 2003, p-6). And while there have been increases in the level of managerial positions held by women, the overall percentage increase has been in the range of1 through 3 present. 3.2 Statistical Evidence Statistical evidence has been utilized to illustrate that the workplace attitudes concerning women has been and is slow to change. In the United Kingdom a survey conducted by the Equal Opportunities Commission(2006) indicated that while females have been outperforming males in education and that they statistically outnumber males in institutions of higher learning, they represent just: nine present (9%) of the senior judiciary, ten present (10%) of senior police officers, and thirteen present (13%) of national newspaper editors The overall consensus reached by the survey is that there has been little progress or change since the Equal Opportunity Commission first published its findings in 2004. The lack of any meaningful progress in women achieving managerial positions has been utilized as a bell weather to gauge attitudes and indicates that social, cultural and economic variables, as well as wage scales, that are clear indicators with respect to the fact that the workplace attitudes concerning women still sees them in secondary rather than equal roles. Chapter 4 Legislation Concerning Gender and Employment The European Union passed the Equal Pay Act in 1970, which marked its first legislation on discrimination. Society was different in that period than it is now and in some ways it remains the same. The gender divide is still present and research has shown that there is little difference in a reduction of the wage gap. The fact that the European Union has been diligent in its understanding and approach to the facets of inequality, discrimination in all forms, equal pay, employment equality, sexual harassment, and sex discrimination means that there are other factors inhibiting the objective of attaining improvements in these areas. In order to understand what has transpired in terms of society and legislation, a comparative examination of the 30 year period that represents the enactment of the Equal Pay Act of 1970 and today shall attempt to identify the factors inhibiting progress in the achievement of the aims of legislation designed to eliminate the aforementioned inequities. 4.1 Equal Pay Act of 1970 (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2005) The Act makes it unlawful for employers to discriminate in the workplace between males and females with regard to their rate of payment when they are engaged in the same as well as similar work, work that is rated as being equivalent and or work that is of equal value. The key provision is that the Act refers to comparisons for the preceding between individuals of the opposite sex. When the Act was passed in 1970 the wage gap between males and females stood as thirty-seven present (37%) (Woman and Equality, 2006). By the time the Act became law in 1975 the wage gap had reduced to thirty present(30%), and presently it stands at seventeen present (17%) (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2005). The Act provides both men as well as women to equal payment in terms of the contract for employment and provides for coverage for piecework, quotas, bonuses, sick leave and holidays. Enhancements to the Act under European Law have extended the range of coverage to redundancy payments, concessions for travel, pensions handled by employers and to occupational benefits under pension plans administered by employers. The Equal Pay Act was the first as well as most important piece of legislation in that it immediately addressed the issue of compensation that covered every male and female within the jurisdiction of the European Union. And while being a landmark piece of legislation in terms of seeking to level the playing field for women, the Act also contains provisions that provide employers with a defence concerning pay differences. It states that employers do not have to pay the same wages as well as benefits for equal work if they can effectively prove that the difference on wages is a factor unrelated toe difference in sex. It also provides for the fact that differing geographic locations might serve as grounds, as well as specialized recruitment for particular positions and the requirement or need to retain workers that perform or occupy particular positions. 4.2 Equal Treatment in Employment and Occupation (International Labour Organization, 2006) As referred to as ‘gender equality’ Directive 76/207, which was amended by Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 of the European Commission Treaty, it sets forth the foundations and regulations concerning equal treatment in terms of: 1. access to employment 2. self-employment and occupation, 3. working conditions, and 4. vocational training The framework that the Directive set down terms and conditions that identified discrimination on the basis of: religion or belief, and age or sexual orientation, with regard to employment as well as occupation, thus putting into effect in the European Union states principles of equal treatment as long as the preceding does is not as a result of discrimination based upon sex, which is legislated under the Sex Discrimination Act. And while this piece of legislation is not directly linked to considerations based upon sexual orientation, it does represent a broad context that broadens the scope of the European Union’s legislative powers in these areas and as such constitutes a supporting role in the specific mandates that affect women. As covered under Chapter 3 -Attitudes Toward Women at Work, societal, traditions and cultural foundations help to shape individual as well as corporate thinking. As such the attack on prejudice needs to take a direct frontal approach as well as from angles to centralize and focus in on the problem or unequal treatment as a concept, condition and principle. Sex Discrimination Act, as amended, of 1976 (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The Act provides for the fact that individuals must have legal protection with regard to harassment and sexual harassment in employment as well as vocational training. The Act defines harassments: â€Å"†¦ where unwanted conduct related to the sex of a person occurs with the purpose of violating the dignity of a person and of creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment†. (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) And in terms of the Act, sexual harassment is defined as: â€Å"†¦ where any form of unwanted verbal, non-verbal or physical conduct of sexual nature occurs†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The preceding refers to when the foregoing violates the dignity of an individual when in particular such creates a hostile, degrading, offensive and or humiliating environment. In the United Kingdom the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 is the singular statute dealing specifically with this subject. It makes it a criminal offence for someone to engage in or pursue a course of conduct, this includes speech, which amounts to the harassment of another individual. Under the UK Harassment Act, harassment is defined as: â€Å"†¦ a course of conduct which amounts to harassment of another, and which he knows or ought to have known amounts to the harassment of another† (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The laws of the European Union clearly set forth the conditions, circumstances and legal ramifications of equal pay, sex discrimination, harassment and gender equality in its position to create compliance with modern societal thinking and correctness. The heart of the principle is that a law is: 1. A rule of conduct or procedure established by custom, agreement or authority. 2. a. The body of rules and principles governing affairs†¦ b. The condition of social order and justice created by adherence to such a system †¦ 4. A piece of enacted legislation † (Houghton Mifflin, 2006) The preceding provides the explanation as to why such legislation is needed. And while there is great debate on the subject, the purpose of government is to protect individual rights and to preserve justice(Wikipedia, 2006). And as it is with any societal system, the prevailing view as well as wisdom changes as thinking evolves. The underlying foundations upon which western societies are primarily built upon are patriarchal and religious precepts. As discussed in Chapter 1– Introduction, the rights of women were scant and subject to the subjugation of males under Roman law, the church and ancient as well as medieval laws. Since legislation for Equal Pay was only enacted in 1970in the European Union it seems to indicate that medieval principles were still at work in our modern age and apparently still at work in that equal pay, attitudes toward women at work and enacted legislation has made progress, but still represents a prime topic of discussion thirty years later. Chapter 5 The Differences Between Men and Women The biological and social constructions of men and women are known to have scientific basis with respect to differences. The notion that we are all created equal is a truth of the human experience, but within that equality, men and women differ in many aspects. The question in the context of women and their career roles with respect to a work and life balance is, does that difference equate some type of advantage, disadvantage or no applicable correlation with regard to that context? 5.1 The Perception of Differences A recent scientific discovery indicated that there are 789 different genes that separate men from women (BBC News, 2003), but the study could not detail what they do or the reasons as to what the differences that these genes might hold. And the foregoing represents the point. There are both differences as well as similarities between the sexes that are identified as a result of psychological differen Gender Differences in the Workforce Gender Differences in the Workforce The contention that women’s roles in having a career results in the creation of a problem with regard to them achieving a balance between their work and lives finds its roots in the rights and equality issues women have faced throughout the ages. The subject is not a contemporary one, although this tends to be the common perception due to scant references to resources dating back centuries as a result of either suppression or the lack of relevant data in books. In fact, such information is available via research in many journals and letters. The sources of the conception that a woman’s career somehow takes second precedence to being a wife, mother or homemaker are founded in a number of myths, prejudicial thinking, misguided notions and historical contexts that have fostered them as second class citizens. A large percentage of feminists believe that the status of women being regarded as second-class citizens is a result of patriarchy being the foundation that modern society was built upon and that this fostered thinking, attitudes and conceptions that relegated them to secondary roles instead of being regarded as equals. The foregoing notion(s) shall be examined from a number of standpoints to clarify the unenlightened views held by some in this regard. The examination will not be conducted from a feminist point of view, nor shall it seek to explain prevailing views, it shall instead present the relevant facts which the conclusions shall be drawn from. The simple truth is that women have been balancing multiple roles through history and the insertion of the role of career can be equated to any number of functions that they have performed and accomplished. Chapter 1 – Introduction 1.1 Background In order to set the context for the discussion regarding the contention that women’s roles in having careers poses a problem in their achieving balance between work and life, the first salient fact that needs tube established is that women constitute 3,209,000,000 of the world’s total population estimate of 6,477,450,857 (Population Reference Bureau, 2006). This means that the under utilization of women represents a 50% reduction in the number of available individuals that can make a contribution in professional terms. Chart 1 – Education Variables – Women (Population Reference Bureau, 2006) Demographic Variable Country Data Women All Ages, 2005 World 3,209,000,000 All Educational Variables Literacy Women as % of Literate Men, Ages 15-24, 2000-04 World 92 Secondary School Enrolment, Female, 2000-03 (as % of school-age enrolment) World 93 As the preceding chart indicates, the slight difference in overall literacy rates does not put women at a disadvantage in terms of educational qualifications, yet their unemployment rate remains considerably higher proportionally. As shown from the following chart, women comprise approximately 40% of today’s work force yet their participation rates indicate bias (see Chart 3 – Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rates and the Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males, 2003): Chart 2 – Global Labour Market Indicators / 1993 and 2003 (International Labour Organization, 2004) Female Male Total 1993 2003 1993 2003 1993 2003 Labour force (millions) 1,006 1,208 1,507 1,769 2,513 2,978 Employment (millions) 948 1,130 1,425 1,661 2,373 2,792 Unemployment (millions) 58.2 77.8 82.3 108.1 140.5 185.9 Labour force participation rate (%) 53.5 53.9 80.5 79.4 67.0 66.6 Employment-to-population ratio (%) 50.4 50.5 76.1 74.5 63.3 62.5 Unemployment rate (%) 5.8 6.4 5.5 6.1 5.6 6.2 Chart 3 – Male and Female Labour Force Participation Rates and the Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males, 2003 (International Labour Organization, 2004) Male LFPR Female LFPR Gender Gap in Economically Active Females per 100 Males World 79.4 53.9 68 Middle East and North Africa 76.8 28.2 36 South Asia 81.1 37.4 44 Latin America and the Caribbean 80.5 49.2 64 Industrialized Economies 70.3 50.5 76 Transition Economies 65.7 53.1 91 South-East Asia 82.9 60.5 75 Sub-Saharan Africa 85.3 63.2 77 East Asia 85.1 73.1 83 When wages are factored into the preceding figures, the picture of bias with respect to employed women takes on additional meaning. Chart 4 – Percentage Change in Real Wages/Earnings, Men and Women for Selected Occupations. (International Labour Organization, 2004) Accountant Computer First- Labourer Professional Welder (in banking) programmer Level in nurse in metal in education construction Manu- insurance teacher factoring F M F M F M F M F M F M Bahrain (1993-98) 16 1161 near near -7 131 36 24 1n.a.1 1n.a1 1n.a.1 1n.a1 Belarus (1996-2000) near near near near 100 35 307 323 near near near near Cyprus (1990-2001) near near 44 60 23 12 49 37 26 9 near near Finland (1990-1999) 67 96 44 66 -7 -4 1 8 -7 -6 -10 -1 Jordan (1988-1997) 29 20 -63 -51 25 13 near near -21 -17 near near Korea, Republic of (1990-2001) 91 46 94 73 29 60 115 37 71 229 46 49 Kyrgyzstan (1998-2001) 4 -26 near near -14 -39 4 20 -19 -32 near near Latvia (1997-2001) 39 31 561 142 82 45 36 18 60 33 1 26 Peru (1997-2001) 15 35 -13 -20 34 37 near near near near near near Poland (1998-2001) 28 31 103 70 53 53 13 20 26 29 45 25 Romania (1995-2001) 126 73 1 38 -7 -6 -19 -24 27 17 -22 -20 Singapore (1995-2000) -3 -24 24 43 near near 26 16 9 24 24 19 United Kingdom (1996-2001) 16 1 9 near near near near near near 10 12 near near United States (1990-2000) 9 12 15 6 4 14 near near -2 10 near near From the foregoing it appears that the problem with women’s roles in having a career is the problem that is perceived by others rather than women themselves. The preceding statement is made as a result of the purely statistical information which clearly shows that women want to work and have the basic educational background(s), however wages are a reflection of a perceived difference even when gauged against the same profession. Therefore, there must be other forces, explanations, perceptions and aspects at work. In order to understand the environments outlined by the preceding, it will be necessary to delve into social, gender, historical, economic and other areas in order to develop an understanding of what is at work in even asking the question, as well as answering it. For if the preceding did not consist of underlying causes, then the need to examine the phenomenon would not exist. The foregoing brings us to areas of examination that at first glance might seem disconnected from the context, but in reality are revealing looks into legislative, sociological, cultural, historical and aspects that aid in providing not just facts, but insight as a result of reviewing them in combination as statistical data and appropriate legislation are a result of changing societal views. But legislation alone cannot cause individuals to evolve their views, and herein lies the problem as there are countless examples where the spirit of the law has been subjugated and artificial barriers created or utilized. The preceding are events, circumstances and outgrowths that are not the product of women’s careers being the problem, these are other forces at work making it a problem. 1.2 Historical Perspectives Historically women have managed, just as males have, to multi task. The example of the working male who engages in sports, hunting, boating, wood working, and running multiple businesses does not raise the question as to whether they are neglecting or failing to provide their families with enough fathering time. This is a result of patriarchy which means in literal terms that males make the decisions as a result of them being the dominant aspect in political as well asocial affairs. But, more importantly males own and run the corporations by and large, as well as are dominant in political, military and other manifestations of power. Therefore, whether one elects to think of society at large being patriarchal, it in fact is. Hence, the preceding fosters underlying, hidden and historical perceptions regarding the roles of men and women as established centuries ago. Support for the preceding view can be traced back to Roman law during the period defined as Augustus to Justinian, as represented by27 B.C. to 527 A.D. A Roman woman was regarded as legally capable at the age of thirteen whereby she was permitted to draw up a will(Hacker, 2004). The foregoing however was bound by the condition that she could do so under supervision. Supervision was deemed to either bathe female’s father, male guardian of husband and their consent was essential in order for the will to be executed. The preceding stipulation of male consent remained as a condition over a Roman woman’s life regardless of her age. This condition was explained as being a result of their â€Å"†¦ unsteadiness of character†, â€Å" â€Å"the weakness of the sex†, and â€Å"ignorance of legal matters† (Hacker, 2004, p-3). Evidence of subjugation can also be found in Church history. Canon law states that a wife must be submissive to her husband and that she could not cut off her hair under penalty of excommunication (Hecker,2004, p-9). And in the case of Joan of Arc, it was her breaking of the law stating that a woman who wore men’s garments was accursed, that was one of the charges that resulted in her being burned at the stake(Hacker, 2004, p-9). Similar examples can also be found in British law where under older common law a husband had the authority to â€Å"†¦ correct and chastise his wife† (Hacker, 2004, p-11). The preceding examples are a few of the historical foundations that patriarchy has been built upon and hence the underlying foundation from which the subject of woman’s career roles emanates. Chapter 2 –Segregation in the Workplace 2.1 Segregation Segregation in the workplace constitutes a phenomenon that is linked to sex discrimination, the glass ceiling, patriarchy and unequal wages in that it reinforces stereotyped views, attitudes and traditions. Resin (1984) states that work related sex segregation can be characterized in the following manner, the first is through norms that separate sexes into separate spheres, such as the predominance of females in domestic work and males in construction, and via functional separation whereby males and females do different work in the same work setting. Segregation in the workplace is a further subtle reinforcement of inequality that slowly permeates the conscientiousness of both males and females into accepting this abnormality as being normal. A review of segregation in the workplace in terms of its manifestations shall be examined from a neutral stance in order to gauge perspectives from both sides of the equation. Such will be done from a factual information based perspective. The subject of segregation in the workplace with regard to women is also termed as the ‘Glass Ceiling’. This phrase was developed in the United States during the 1970’s to describe artificial and invisible barriers that were and are created as a result of organizational and attitudinal prejudices that serve to prevent women from assuming top positions in the workplace (Wirth, 2001). As the most visible and publicized example of discrimination and the segregation of women in the work place, the exclusion of females from top positions within corporations is clearly evident by the fact that they hold just 2 to 3 percent of the top positions. Linda Wirth (2001) has stated that women have not reached top positions in major companies and that the foregoing has nothing to do with their lack of abilities. The International Labour Organization (Chart 5) indicates that around fifty percent (59%) of all women are positioned in occupations that cane be termed sex stereotyped. The preceding term is defined as meaning that approximately eighty present (89%) of the workers within these occupations are either males or females whereas management is primarily male dominated position. Chart 5 – Women’s Share of Administrative – Managerial Positions and Their Share of Total Employment, 1994-1995 (Wirth, 2001, p 193) Country Administrative and Managerial Jobs (%) Total Employment (%) Australia 43 42 Austria 22 43 Chile 20 32 Costa Rica 23 30 Ecuador 28 38 Egypt 12 20 Finland 25 47 Israel 19 42 Japan 9 41 Malaysia 19 34 Mexico 20 32 Norway 32 46 Paraguay 23 41 Philippines 33 37 Sri Lanka 17 48 Switzerland 28 40 Turkey 10 30 United Kingdom 33 45 United States 43 46 Uruguay 28 41 Venezuela 23 33 The preceding is an example of how segregation in the workplace extends into wage inequality as well as job satisfaction in that there is a cap on the level of advancement which women can generally aspire to thus slowly dampening their drive and determination in the face of subtle hurdles. Given the predominance of male positioned managers, executives and directors only the most dedicated and brightest of females manage to reach top positions where they still remain underpaid and suffer forms of discrimination in a male dominated environment. The definitive example of work segregation is found in the manner in which men and women are paid for the same work. Chart 4, Percentage Change in Real Wages/Earnings, Men and Women for Selected Occupations, revealed that the fact there has been and is a percentage change in real wage earnings for men and women in selected occupations, means that there was wage disparity in the first place (International Labour Organization, 2004). The idea of traditional occupations represents one of the most pervasive forms of segregation in work whereby males are thought to be either innately qualified or predisposed to work in certain industries. An example of the preceding is demonstrated by the findings of the Equal Opportunities Commission in Scotland based upon research conducted by Caledonian University in Glasgow. Said study found that there are barriers to younger adults pursuing certain career choices and that these include the negative feedback and or attitudes of family, friends and more particularly employers (BBC News, 2005). Said study pointed to the fact that there were just forty-one female apprentices in the entire country that were actively engaged in pursuing a construction career., and only fifty in engineering (BBCNews, 2005). On the opposite side of the coin the same study revealed that just 15 males were pursuing careers as apprentices in childcare. The report concluded that the barriers concerning the recruitment of males for that occupation were the low pay and attitudes of end users regarding the suitability of males in such roles (BBC News, 2005). 2.2 Gender Segregation Gender segregation represents a real issue that is neither subtle nor hidden, yet defies the concept of discrimination in that it prevents females from assuming careers that tend to fall outside of what is either considered feminine or represent male dominated areas whereby their attempt at entry will be greeted with barriers. The conception that there are traditional roles for men and women is countermanded byte fact that fully one-third of Finnish and American entrepreneurs are women, as just one singular example (International Labour Office,2004). The concept of segregation in the workplace has many differing forms and varieties, but it is what it is, segregation. And that fosters the climate that continues the attitudinal as well as prejudicial underpinnings that contribute to the view of woman’s careers as being predisposed to a certain limited sphere as well as inequality. Pascale differences, the conception that certain careers are better suited to women, the disproportionate skew of males in managerial positions as well as the predominate concentrations of females in certain professions and industries reinforce this environment to the detriment of all. Chapter 3 Attitudes Toward Women at Work As pointed out in Chapter 3 – Segregation in the Workplace, certain predefined ideas and conceptions provide the basis that fosters and continues the notion that varied occupations are better suited to women or men. This thinking helps to create an attitudinal atmosphere that reinforces itself in spite of there being proof to the contrary. Evening what we like to think of as our modern and progressive societies of the new millennium, much of the same limited and outdated thinking that existed prior to the 1940’s is still with us, and in spite of all of the legislation, feminist movements and understanding of equal rights, progress in terms of changing or evolving people’s minds has been slowing coming. The aforementioned ‘glass ceiling’ atmosphere is a pervasive climate that permeates throughout the work environment. Its visual manifestations in terms of the male dominated professions and management positions are consistent reminders of the way things are, as well as the way things were. Thus, an examination of attitudes concerning women at work is linked to segregation in the workplace as well as other concepts as they are inexorably tied to one another. The most disturbing examples of attitudes with regard to women at work arise discrimination and sexual harassment, both outgrowths of segregation in the workplace. 3.1 Looking Under the Surface Oddly, the Allies would most likely not have won World War I without women. Not because they were nurses, functioned as telephone operators or were basically secretaries to generals and prime ministers, but because they welded tanks, made munitions, drove tractor-trailers, operated heavy machinery and performed all manner of traditionally male jobs (Wikipedia, 2005). With such a breakthrough in thinking as well as demonstration of female aptitude one would wonders to why the questions of discrimination, work place segregation and unequal pay scales are still with us, yet they are. Once again, the roots of such odd thinking can be traced back to patriarchy, which comes from ancient Greece whereby patria Thus the ramifications of continued second class citizenship with regard to participation in the work force must be explained by ingrained societal foundations, and this is the rationale for the examination of the word patriarchy. Given its foundation of ruler, archer, the platform for at least a partial explanation of the struggle women still face in the workplace seems to have a basis. The foregoing when combined with the ‘glass ceiling’ effect and unequal wage scales brings forth the fact that there is de facto sex discrimination, and these practices create the view that sees women as secondary, or less important workers and individuals. Article 20 of the European Charter of Fundamental Rights, which was enacted in 2000, states that everyone is equal in terms of the law and Article 21 of that legislation states(Silver, 2003): â€Å"Any discrimination based on any ground such as sex, race, colour, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, birth, disability, age or sexual orientation shall be prohibited† The European Charter of Fundamental Rights goes on to add in Article23 that it is understood that it recognizes equality between men and women as being (Silver, 2003): â€Å"†¦ in all areas, including employment, work and pay, without preventing measures providing for specific advantages in favour of thunder-represented sex† The language as well as intent leaves no room for misinterpretation with regard to the stance of the European Union and thus the obligations of all member nations. The problem with the foregoing is that it had to be legislated rather than being a part of the social fabric. And, as it is with all regulations, laws and legislation, penalties form the basis for compliance where common sense and morality do not prevail. Once again, the ingrained thinking of centuries of cultural and traditional foundations of patriarchal societies is at work slowing the process. And while there has been and is progress in terms of the opportunities open to women, these areas pale in comparison to the overall number taken as a whole. The International Labour Organization (2003) found that while women represent forty present (40%) of the labour force, their proportion of managerial positions is fewer than twenty present (20%). Its studies also uncovered that the higher the management position, the less women are represented. The latest figures on top corporate positions found that women constituted just a 2 to 3 present representation (International Labour Organization, 2003, p-5). The preceding, while limited to managerial considerations, is clear indication of the prevailing attitude in the workplace regarding careers involving women. It points to the ‘glass ceiling’ effect and the fact that within the structures as well as processes of society and organizations that there is inherent discrimination that transcends legislation through the application of slow and frustrating practices. The correlation of attitudes in the workplace is best exemplified through what is and has transpired as a result of historical employment patterns. Developed economies such as the United Kingdom and Switzerland report that slightly over ten present (10%) and twelve present (12%), respectively, of executives in these countries were women as of 1999 (International Labour Organization, 2003, p-6). And while there have been increases in the level of managerial positions held by women, the overall percentage increase has been in the range of1 through 3 present. 3.2 Statistical Evidence Statistical evidence has been utilized to illustrate that the workplace attitudes concerning women has been and is slow to change. In the United Kingdom a survey conducted by the Equal Opportunities Commission(2006) indicated that while females have been outperforming males in education and that they statistically outnumber males in institutions of higher learning, they represent just: nine present (9%) of the senior judiciary, ten present (10%) of senior police officers, and thirteen present (13%) of national newspaper editors The overall consensus reached by the survey is that there has been little progress or change since the Equal Opportunity Commission first published its findings in 2004. The lack of any meaningful progress in women achieving managerial positions has been utilized as a bell weather to gauge attitudes and indicates that social, cultural and economic variables, as well as wage scales, that are clear indicators with respect to the fact that the workplace attitudes concerning women still sees them in secondary rather than equal roles. Chapter 4 Legislation Concerning Gender and Employment The European Union passed the Equal Pay Act in 1970, which marked its first legislation on discrimination. Society was different in that period than it is now and in some ways it remains the same. The gender divide is still present and research has shown that there is little difference in a reduction of the wage gap. The fact that the European Union has been diligent in its understanding and approach to the facets of inequality, discrimination in all forms, equal pay, employment equality, sexual harassment, and sex discrimination means that there are other factors inhibiting the objective of attaining improvements in these areas. In order to understand what has transpired in terms of society and legislation, a comparative examination of the 30 year period that represents the enactment of the Equal Pay Act of 1970 and today shall attempt to identify the factors inhibiting progress in the achievement of the aims of legislation designed to eliminate the aforementioned inequities. 4.1 Equal Pay Act of 1970 (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2005) The Act makes it unlawful for employers to discriminate in the workplace between males and females with regard to their rate of payment when they are engaged in the same as well as similar work, work that is rated as being equivalent and or work that is of equal value. The key provision is that the Act refers to comparisons for the preceding between individuals of the opposite sex. When the Act was passed in 1970 the wage gap between males and females stood as thirty-seven present (37%) (Woman and Equality, 2006). By the time the Act became law in 1975 the wage gap had reduced to thirty present(30%), and presently it stands at seventeen present (17%) (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2005). The Act provides both men as well as women to equal payment in terms of the contract for employment and provides for coverage for piecework, quotas, bonuses, sick leave and holidays. Enhancements to the Act under European Law have extended the range of coverage to redundancy payments, concessions for travel, pensions handled by employers and to occupational benefits under pension plans administered by employers. The Equal Pay Act was the first as well as most important piece of legislation in that it immediately addressed the issue of compensation that covered every male and female within the jurisdiction of the European Union. And while being a landmark piece of legislation in terms of seeking to level the playing field for women, the Act also contains provisions that provide employers with a defence concerning pay differences. It states that employers do not have to pay the same wages as well as benefits for equal work if they can effectively prove that the difference on wages is a factor unrelated toe difference in sex. It also provides for the fact that differing geographic locations might serve as grounds, as well as specialized recruitment for particular positions and the requirement or need to retain workers that perform or occupy particular positions. 4.2 Equal Treatment in Employment and Occupation (International Labour Organization, 2006) As referred to as ‘gender equality’ Directive 76/207, which was amended by Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 of the European Commission Treaty, it sets forth the foundations and regulations concerning equal treatment in terms of: 1. access to employment 2. self-employment and occupation, 3. working conditions, and 4. vocational training The framework that the Directive set down terms and conditions that identified discrimination on the basis of: religion or belief, and age or sexual orientation, with regard to employment as well as occupation, thus putting into effect in the European Union states principles of equal treatment as long as the preceding does is not as a result of discrimination based upon sex, which is legislated under the Sex Discrimination Act. And while this piece of legislation is not directly linked to considerations based upon sexual orientation, it does represent a broad context that broadens the scope of the European Union’s legislative powers in these areas and as such constitutes a supporting role in the specific mandates that affect women. As covered under Chapter 3 -Attitudes Toward Women at Work, societal, traditions and cultural foundations help to shape individual as well as corporate thinking. As such the attack on prejudice needs to take a direct frontal approach as well as from angles to centralize and focus in on the problem or unequal treatment as a concept, condition and principle. Sex Discrimination Act, as amended, of 1976 (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The Act provides for the fact that individuals must have legal protection with regard to harassment and sexual harassment in employment as well as vocational training. The Act defines harassments: â€Å"†¦ where unwanted conduct related to the sex of a person occurs with the purpose of violating the dignity of a person and of creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment†. (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) And in terms of the Act, sexual harassment is defined as: â€Å"†¦ where any form of unwanted verbal, non-verbal or physical conduct of sexual nature occurs†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The preceding refers to when the foregoing violates the dignity of an individual when in particular such creates a hostile, degrading, offensive and or humiliating environment. In the United Kingdom the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 is the singular statute dealing specifically with this subject. It makes it a criminal offence for someone to engage in or pursue a course of conduct, this includes speech, which amounts to the harassment of another individual. Under the UK Harassment Act, harassment is defined as: â€Å"†¦ a course of conduct which amounts to harassment of another, and which he knows or ought to have known amounts to the harassment of another† (Equal Opportunity Commission, 2002) The laws of the European Union clearly set forth the conditions, circumstances and legal ramifications of equal pay, sex discrimination, harassment and gender equality in its position to create compliance with modern societal thinking and correctness. The heart of the principle is that a law is: 1. A rule of conduct or procedure established by custom, agreement or authority. 2. a. The body of rules and principles governing affairs†¦ b. The condition of social order and justice created by adherence to such a system †¦ 4. A piece of enacted legislation † (Houghton Mifflin, 2006) The preceding provides the explanation as to why such legislation is needed. And while there is great debate on the subject, the purpose of government is to protect individual rights and to preserve justice(Wikipedia, 2006). And as it is with any societal system, the prevailing view as well as wisdom changes as thinking evolves. The underlying foundations upon which western societies are primarily built upon are patriarchal and religious precepts. As discussed in Chapter 1– Introduction, the rights of women were scant and subject to the subjugation of males under Roman law, the church and ancient as well as medieval laws. Since legislation for Equal Pay was only enacted in 1970in the European Union it seems to indicate that medieval principles were still at work in our modern age and apparently still at work in that equal pay, attitudes toward women at work and enacted legislation has made progress, but still represents a prime topic of discussion thirty years later. Chapter 5 The Differences Between Men and Women The biological and social constructions of men and women are known to have scientific basis with respect to differences. The notion that we are all created equal is a truth of the human experience, but within that equality, men and women differ in many aspects. The question in the context of women and their career roles with respect to a work and life balance is, does that difference equate some type of advantage, disadvantage or no applicable correlation with regard to that context? 5.1 The Perception of Differences A recent scientific discovery indicated that there are 789 different genes that separate men from women (BBC News, 2003), but the study could not detail what they do or the reasons as to what the differences that these genes might hold. And the foregoing represents the point. There are both differences as well as similarities between the sexes that are identified as a result of psychological differen

Heinz †Beech Nut Merger :: Business Mergers Acquisitions M&A M+A

Heinz – Beech Nut Merger The word â€Å"merger† is very common term that everyone in America has to deal with in some aspect of life. Banks, oil companies, car manufacturers, computer makers†¦the list goes on for ever, and the mergers of these companies have a direct effect on our daily life. For decades the US government and the court systems have tried to regulate how mergers can and cannot happen and why. The reason(s) as to why a merger is allowed or not has varied over the years, but one major concept has remained the same: too many mergers within a particular market can reduce competition and create a monopoly (or a near monopoly condition). Merging firms often state that a merger could help them reduce costs and to develop better products. They claim this would clearly be a benefit to the consumers of their product(s). The 1960’s and 70’s were considered the earlier era of merger law by economists. During this time frame he courts and governments were more concerned with the NON-economic aspects of mergers: reducing market concentration, protecting small business, consumers rights†¦etc. Since 1979 those concerns have faded and the court system is now more concerned with economic concerns. The difference between right and wrong has been blurred recently, which allows judges to consider ALL factors in a case (economic and non), and be flexible when looking at specific cases. The merger guidelines were revised in 1997 to allow efficiencies to be used as a defense. Clearly, efficiencies are a key part of the defense, and are looked at very closely by the courts, especially in cases with a high market concentration. The Merger Guidelines state: â€Å"Efficiencies almost never justify a merger to monopoly or near monopoly.† (Kwoka and White, 2004) Posner and Bork said that the antitrust laws and economic efficiency helped only the consumers, not the firms. They encouraged the courts to look at efficiencies in antitrust analysis generally. They claimed that an efficiency defense could possibly make investigating a merger intractable in litigation. The term â€Å"intractable† as defined by Wikipedia are â€Å"problems that are solvable in theory, but cannot be solved in practice†. This means that what Posner and Bork are saying is that while in the litigation stage of a trial, the efficiency defense could theoretically come up with a solution that appears and sounds good, but in real life business situations (practice) would not work. Heinz – Beech Nut Merger :: Business Mergers Acquisitions M&A M+A Heinz – Beech Nut Merger The word â€Å"merger† is very common term that everyone in America has to deal with in some aspect of life. Banks, oil companies, car manufacturers, computer makers†¦the list goes on for ever, and the mergers of these companies have a direct effect on our daily life. For decades the US government and the court systems have tried to regulate how mergers can and cannot happen and why. The reason(s) as to why a merger is allowed or not has varied over the years, but one major concept has remained the same: too many mergers within a particular market can reduce competition and create a monopoly (or a near monopoly condition). Merging firms often state that a merger could help them reduce costs and to develop better products. They claim this would clearly be a benefit to the consumers of their product(s). The 1960’s and 70’s were considered the earlier era of merger law by economists. During this time frame he courts and governments were more concerned with the NON-economic aspects of mergers: reducing market concentration, protecting small business, consumers rights†¦etc. Since 1979 those concerns have faded and the court system is now more concerned with economic concerns. The difference between right and wrong has been blurred recently, which allows judges to consider ALL factors in a case (economic and non), and be flexible when looking at specific cases. The merger guidelines were revised in 1997 to allow efficiencies to be used as a defense. Clearly, efficiencies are a key part of the defense, and are looked at very closely by the courts, especially in cases with a high market concentration. The Merger Guidelines state: â€Å"Efficiencies almost never justify a merger to monopoly or near monopoly.† (Kwoka and White, 2004) Posner and Bork said that the antitrust laws and economic efficiency helped only the consumers, not the firms. They encouraged the courts to look at efficiencies in antitrust analysis generally. They claimed that an efficiency defense could possibly make investigating a merger intractable in litigation. The term â€Å"intractable† as defined by Wikipedia are â€Å"problems that are solvable in theory, but cannot be solved in practice†. This means that what Posner and Bork are saying is that while in the litigation stage of a trial, the efficiency defense could theoretically come up with a solution that appears and sounds good, but in real life business situations (practice) would not work.

Information and communications technology (ICT) Essay -- Essays Papers

Information and communications technology (ICT)? To illustrate the importance of Information and Communications technology (ICT) for the smooth running of a multi-site business. Information and communications technology is a system used to control, manage, process and create information through telecommunications technology and computers. (Otherwise known as ICT). Although information and communications technology describes a large range of systems there are still some underlining common features. An information system incorporates a group of people, equipment and procedures. It is there to collect, record, process, store, retrieve and present information. The importance of ICT for the smooth running of a multi-site business is paramount, the following are a number of ways in which ICT can improve your company’s performance; - Increased Efficiency: If programmed correctly, computers can monitor the data collection processes very efficiently, whilst also checking for human errors and providing help and guidance to the user. Most large scale organisations are using computer-assisted interviewing as standard in many of their surveys simply because of the remarkable achievements good data collection programs can make to reduce human error and speed processing in the collection of important information. - Speed and Processing Power: Modern computers are fast. They are able to complete tasks 100’s of times faster then we would be able to. Most computers are now so powerful, that computer users rarely come even close to utilising their full potential. - Cost Containment: ICT technology is an expensive thing to incorporate within your business however it will eventually create substantial cost savings through less time being wasted on laborious tasks and on recuperating human error. - Versatility: As computers become more powerful and efficient, you are able to make them do more varied and creative tasks. The average PC can already perform most multimedia functions such as reproducing photographic pictures as sharp as any film. The advantages can range from being able to create advertisements for your company to monitoring stock controls. - Departmental co-operation: With open and shared databases, it enables a company to remove barriers between departments giving staff more accurate information and greater competency to serve cus... ...aotic. The process companies, management and business, in general, are going through, are creating major opportunities and challenges for the business world. Companies are becoming adept at using information systems and technology because their potential is becoming apparent to them. ICT should be thought of as an investment that will deliver the benefits today and in the future. These benefits are of two main types: Improvements in infrastructural efficiency, as information systems replace old ones with systems that are more flexible, have greater reach and cost less to run, and new business opportunities made possible by new information systems. These opportunities include improvements in external and internal processes, tapping employees’ and external knowledge, and the creation of networked communities of customers and staff. ICT should be able to streamline your business, produce measurable improvements, but most importantly managers need to use the resource to be on the lookout for new business opportunities. BIBLIOGRAPGHY: 1. Heathcote.M .P, (1998) ‘A’ Level Computing 2. Cushings.S. (1997) GCSE Information Technology 3. Bastin.C. (1997) Access 97 Basics Unveiled

Female Genital Mutilation

Is Female Genital Mutilation A Moral Practice Female genital mutilation (FGM) is not a morally justified practice. It is an unnecessary procedure that has no medical health benefits to the girls and women it is being performed on. According to Utilitarianism, we should produce the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number affected. Utilitarian’s also believe that we should alleviate the greatest amount of pain and suffering for the greatest number affected. Based on Utilitarian grounds, FGM has no medical health benefits and it is a completely unnecessary act on females in this culture.It is also an extremely painful procedure that has very serious short term and long term side effects, including death. Jeremy Bentham, an Act Utilitarian, developed the hedonic calculus, which is a â€Å"scientific† methodology for determining which pleasures ought to be pursued and which pains ought to be avoided. FGM is an example of the pains that â€Å"ought† to be a voided. This principle enables individuals to provide good reasons for their course of action. When we are deliberating about the right thing to do, Bentham maintains that we must always account for the pleasures and pains.Examples of this are the intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, remoteness, fecundity, purity and extent of the pleasure or pain. In order to understand why FGM is not a morally justified practice and why it goes against the principles of Utilitarianism, you have to know what FGM is. You need to learn who it is being performed on and what age, why it is being done, where it is happening, how it is performed, and what short term and long term side effects occur, after this procedure has been done.The pain and suffering that is resulting from this procedure is going against the greatest happiness principle of Utilitarianism. There is a reason why it is no longer called female circumcision and is now being referred to as female genital mutilation. FGM is an u n-safe, un-sterile procedure that is taking place in many foreign countries around the world including Egypt, the Sudan, the Horn of Africa, the Middle East and Malaysia (Winter, Par. 6). FGM harms girls and women in these cultures by causing them severe pain and multiple serious side effects.According to the hedonic calculus, and the principle of intensity, it states that some pleasures and pains are more intense than others. The girls or women in this culture are being put through an extreme amount of intense pain for no beneficial reason. The procedure is being done by midwives or older â€Å"experienced† women in the villages that do not have any medical training and are not educated in the field of medicine. Not only is FGM a dangerous procedure, but it also has physical, sexual and mental consequences (Amnesty International USA, Par. 3).According to the World Health Organization, this practice has many serious side effects including shock, hemorrhage (bleeding), tetanus or sepsis (bacterial infection), urine retention, open sores in the genital region and injury to nearby genital tissue (Par. 13). Other side effects can include death, serious infections, HIV, abscesses, small benign tumors, and clitoral cysts (wolvesdream, Par. 5). The World Health Organization has also reported many long term consequences which include; recurrent bladder and urinary tract infections, cysts, infertility, an increased risk of childbirth complications and newborn deaths (Par. 4). It can also lead to a need for later surgeries in life (Par. 14). For example, the FGM procedure that seals or narrows a vaginal opening needs to be cut open later in life to allow for sexual intercourse and childbirth (Par. 14). In this same procedure, women could be cut and stitched repeatedly, leading to further complications and more long term risks. Along with the high risk of short term and long term side effects, the biggest issue resulting from this procedure is death. FGM is the re moval of all or part of the external parts of the female genitalia.It is a cultural practice that started in some African countries over 2000 years ago (wolvesdream, Par. 1). According to this same source, FGM is primarily a cultural practice, not a religious practice (Par. 1). However, in some cultures they do include it as part of their religion (Par. 1). In these foreign countries, FGM has become something that is just expected and defines them to their culture (Par. 1). According to the people in this culture, girls will not become women, or adults for that matter, if this procedure is not performed.Most will be considered un-clean and will not be able to marry without the procedure (Par. 9). In some cultures, the reasoning for this procedure, is that it will reduce the woman’s desire for sex, therefore reducing the chance of sex outside the marriage (Amnesty International USA, Par. 7). We can refer this to the purity aspect of the hedonic calculus, which states that some pleasures or pains are purer than others. Why is it fair to take away the pleasure of sexual intercourse from women, but not from men in this culture?What prevents the men from going outside the vows of a marriage? What is reducing their desire for sex and why are they considered â€Å"clean† without performing some kind of horrendous procedure? In this culture, since marriage is often the only role available for women, it is impossible for them to marry if they have not undergone this procedure (Par. 7). Is this procedure only being done to women in this culture because they do not value women? Is their only role in the community reproduction in order to maintain the culture and its practices?FGM is carried out at various ages in a girl’s life but it is most frequently around the ages of four to eight years of age (wolvesdream, Par. 3). Referring back to Bentham’s hedonic calculus and the principle of remoteness, it states that some pleasures and pains may com e sooner than others. The girls that are enduring this procedure are at a very young, immature and undeveloped age. However, the pain inflicted in the procedure doesn’t end here. It can be a lifetime of pain and suffering with every sexual encounter or birth.Looking further at the hedonic calculus and the principle of certainty or uncertainty, it states that there is either pleasure or pain in an act. The girls in this culture are forced into this procedure knowing that they will have to endure an extreme amount of pain that could last a lifetime, depending on the circumstances. According to an article written on FGM, there are three different types of FGM that take place in different cultures (Par. 3). The first one is called Sunna Circumcision which is the removal of the prepuce (retractable fold of skin, or hood) or the tip of the clitoris (Par. ). In this culture Sunna is Arabic for â€Å"tradition† (Par. 3). The second type is Clitoridectomy which is the removal o f the entire clitoris (prepuce and glands) and the removal of the adjacent labia (Par. 3). The third type is called infibulation (pharonic circumcision) which consists of performing a clitoridectomy (removal of all or part of the labia minora, the labia majora) (Par. 3). This is then stitched up allowing only a small hole to remain open to allow for urine and menstrual blood to flow through (Par. 3).To conduct this procedure the midwives or village women use various un-sanitized instruments including; broken glass, tin can lids, blunt knives, scissors, and razor blades (Amnesty International USA, Par. 3). In most cases, these items are used repeatedly, without any type of sterilization or disinfecting. This practice has lead to the rapid spread of many diseases, high infection rates and HIV. Typically, this procedure is performed without any anesthesia and there are no antibiotics given to prevent infection. The only medical treatment they receive is being stitched up using anything from cat or lamb intestine, to the use of thorns (Par. ). If infibulation or a clitoridectomy is performed, their legs are bound for up to two months while their wounds heal, leaving them immobilized (Par. 3). We can refer this back to the hedonic calculus and the principle of duration, which states that some pleasures or pains will last longer than others.Depending on the type of procedure done and how it is done, these girls could endure a lifetime of pain and suffering resulting from this practice. According to research, an estimated 135 million girls and women have undergone FGM and 2 million girls a year are at risk for having this procedure done (Amnesty International USA, Par. ). This accounts for approximately 6,000 girls per day (Amnesty International USA, Par. 5). Referring back to the hedonic calculus, the extent of pain and suffering that is being inflicted on the girls and women of this culture is astounding and the numbers are staggering. After reading about FGM and t he culture it is being performed in, some cultural relativists may argue that the ethical understandings vary between cultures and what may be considered morally wrong in one culture may be perfectly acceptable in another.However, considering the fact that FGM involves the deliberate infliction of severe pain and suffering and that its effects can be life threatening, it does not follow the greatest happiness principle in Utilitarianism. Not only is it a violation of the rights of females but because it is most commonly performed on girls ranging in age from birth to adolescence, it is a grave violation of Children’s Human Rights (Amnesty International USA, Par. 10).In conclusion, female genital mutilation is not a morally justified practice because it goes against the greatest happiness principle of Utilitarianism. It violates the rights of females and female children. It causes serious pain and suffering that can last a lifetime. The amount and seriousness of the side effec ts outnumber any traditional or religious values that some cultures believe in. Therefore, according to Utilitarian grounds, we should produce the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number affected by eliminating this cultural practice all together.In doing this we would be alleviating the greatest amount of pain and suffering for the greatest number affected.Works Cited Amnesty International USA. Action for Human Rights. Hope for Humanity. n. d. Female Genital Mutilation: A Fact Sheet. Web. 27 Sept. 2010. â€Å"Female Genital Mutilation. † n. p. wolvesdreams. tripod. com. n. d. Web. 25 Sept. 2010. Winter, Mary. â€Å"Female Genital Mutilation. † The Rocky Mountain News, 31 Jan. 1996. Print. World Health Organization. Female Genital Mutilation, 2010. Web. 25 Sept. 2010.